Read the second part of the text and check the mistakes in the following Russian interpretation of its content.

Example:Heralds belonged to the nobility and were at least 50 years old, but not 25.

Послы в гомеровской Греции назывались «вестниками». Они принадлежали к высшему сословию, и их возраст не должен был превышать 25 лет. Древнегреческие послы должны были обладать громким голосом и хорошей памятью. Они являлись неофициальными участниками переговоров.

К 4 веку д.н. в Греции сформировалась система консульских агентов или «проксения», т.е. гостеприимства. Проксены становились гражданами тех полисов, в которые они были направлены работать, и пользовались там особыми привилегиями. Первостепенной задачей проксенов являлся сбор информации.

Римляне внесли свой вклад в большей степени в практику дипломатии, нежели теорию. Они уделяли большое внимание подготовке квалифицированных переговорщиков, а не архивариусов.

Когда распалась Восточная Римская империя, ее политические и дипломатические традиции были продолжены Византией – западной частью Римской Империи.

Представители Папы Римского, которые осуществляли дипломатическую деятельность, назывались нунциями. К 12 веку полномочия нунций усилились, и они стали называться полномочными и чрезвычайными послами.

Historical Overview of Diplomacy

Part 2

The tradition that inspired the birth of modern diplomacy in Europe began in ancient Greece. The earliest diplomats of Greece were heralds, references to whom can be found in the Homeric period (the 8^th century BC). The heralds were official agents of negotiation and were chosen for such qualifications as a good memory and a loud voice. According to Greek mythology heralds were protected by the gods with an immunity that other envoys lacked. Their protector was Hermes, the messenger of the gods, who was noted for persuasiveness, eloquence, charm, cunning and trickery. Because heralds were inviolable, they were the favoured channels of contact in wartime. They preceded envoys to arrange for safe passage. Whereas heralds traveled alone, envoys journeyed in small groups, to ensure each other’s loyalty. They usually were politically prominent figures and at least 50 years old. Only the best orators were chosen to be envoys.

As relations between the Greek city-states became more sophisticated, so did the qualifications for diplomatic relations. By the 6^th century BC, the Greeks had implemented a system of continuous diplomatic relations based on consular agents (proxeni). Consular agents were citizens of the city in which they resided, not of the city state that employed them. Like envoys, they had a secondary task of gathering information, but primary responsibility was trade. The Greeks developed archives, a diplomatic vocabulary, principles of international conduct that anticipated international law, and many other elements of modern diplomacy. The Greeks practiced diplomatic conferences and congresses. For example conferences which took place in Sparta in 432 BC included such “modern” concepts as making speeches, debates, proposing motions and carrying out votes. In one 25 – year period of the 4^th century BC, for instance, there were eight Greco – Persian congresses, where even the smallest states had the right to be heard.

The Greek system of diplomacy acted as a foundation for the Roman Republic, which grew over the next several centuries and became the Roman Empire in 27 BC. The contribution of Romans to diplomacy was not to its practice, but to its theory. During the Roman Republic foreign policy was conducted by the Senate alongside with the department of foreign affairs. Later, under the Empire, the emperor was the ultimate decision maker in foreign affairs. Envoys were received with ceremony and magnificence, and they and their aides were granted immunity. Roman envoys were sent abroad with written instructions from their government. For larger responsibilities a legatio (embassy) of 10 or 12 legati was organized under a president.

The Romans stressed the importance of adhering to agreements and treaties. Rather than producing skilled negotiators, the Romans produced skilled archivistswho specialized in diplomatic procedures. Thus, the Roman diplomat was more an administrator than a negotiator.

When the western Empire disintegrated in the 5^th century ad, most of its diplomatic traditions were adopted and developed by the eastern half of the Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and the papacy. The Roman Catholic church conducted an active diplomacy, especially at Constantinople. Popes served as arbiters, and papal legates served as peacemakers. The prestige of the church was such that at every court papal emissaries took precedence over secular envoys. This tradition continues up to now in countries where Roman Catholicism is the official religion. From the 6^th century, both legates and (lesser-ranking) nuncii (messengers) carried letters of credence to assure the rulers to whom they were accredited of the extent of their authority as agents of the pope, a practice later adopted for lay envoys. A nuncius (English nuncio) was a messenger who represented and acted legally for the pope; nuncio could negotiate draft agreements but could not commit the pope without referral. In time, the terms legate and nuncius came to be used for the diplomatic representatives of secular rulers as well as the pope. By the end of the 12^th century the secular use of nuncio as diplomatic agents was commonplace.

When diplomacy was confinedto nearby states and meetings of rulers were easily arranged, a visiting messenger such as nuncius sufficed. However, as trade revived, negotiations at a distance became increasingly common. Envoys no longer could refer the details of negotiations to their masters on a timely basis. They therefore needed the discretionary authority to decide matters on their own. To meet this need, in the 12^th century the concept of a procurator with plena potens (full powers) was revived from Roman civil law. This plenipotentiary could negotiate and conclude an agreement, but, unlike a nuncius, he could not represent his principal ceremonially. As a result, one emissary was often given both offices.

Answer the questions

a. What were the functions of heralds in Homeric Greece?

b. Who was the protector of heralds?

c. What features was Hermes noted for?

d. How were the qualifications of diplomatic relations in Greece changed in the 6^th century BC?

e. What does the term “proxeni” stand for?

f. Which concepts included diplomatic conferences in Sparta in 432 BC?

g. What was the contribution of Romans to diplomatic practice?

h. What does the term “legatio” mean?

i. Whom did Romans produce: skilled negotiators or skilled archivists?

j. What does archivists do?

k. Who were papal emissaries in the 6^th century ad?