UNIT III HISTORY of DIPLOMACY
READING and DISCUSSING
1. Read the following extract and discuss the questions given bellow:
The continuity of the diplomatic institution throughout thousands of years and in all known civilizations shows that diplomacy is an institution inherent to international life itself, one that may undergo transformations or may be used with more or less intensity, but cannot be dispensed with.
Jose Calvet De Magalhaes
a. How long has diplomacy been developing?
b. Which civilization was diplomacy developed in?
c. Has it undergone any changes?
d. Why diplomacy cannot be dispensed with?
2. Read and translate the first part of the text paying special attention to the words in bold and italicized lexical units:
Historical Overview of Diplomacy
Part 1
The concept of diplomacy goes farther back than does recorded history and ideas relating to this phenomenon have arisen in many primitive societies. For example, the idea of diplomatic immunity is known among the Australian aborigines. A study of the diplomacy of primitive peoples encompassing societies in Australia, Asia, Africa and the Americas showed familiarity with ideas such as messengers and envoys to maintain intertribal relations. Some had beliefs that messengers are in possession of protecting taboo that should not be violated. Others received envoys and their messages according to a given ceremonial. Messengers were often selected not from among expendable membersof society, but from the leading men or women of the tribe.
Due to a lack of a preserved written record, very little is known about diplomacy in ancient history. While few in number, there are references to diplomatic concepts across many societies, such as the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese and the Hindus.
Documents dating back to ancient Egypt describe the exchange of envoys between the Egyptian pharaohs and neighboring monarchs. In addition to these descriptions, a treaty dating to 1278 BC between the pharaoh Ramses II and Hatursi II, the king of the Hittities, was found.
Thanks to a cuneiform library founded by Sargon II in the 700’s BC, there is a plentiful record of envoys between Assyria, Babylon and Elam during the reign of Assurbanipal ofAssyria,which lasted until 626 BC.
The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date from the 1st millennium BC. By the 8th century BC, the Chinese had leagues, missions and organized system of polite discourse between their many “warring states”, including resident envoys who served as hostages to the good behavior of those who sent them. The sophisticated essence of ancient Chinese diplomatic system is best captured by the advice of Zhuangzi to envoys and messengers (diplomats) at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. He advised them that if relations between states are close, they may establish mutual trust through daily interaction; but if relations are distant, mutual confidence can only be established by exchanges of messages. Messages must be conveyed by messengers (diplomats). Their contents may be either pleasing to both sides or likely to engenderanger between them. Faithfully conveying such messages is the most difficult task under the heavens, for if the words are such as evokea positive response on both sides, there will be the temptation to exaggerate them with flattery and, if they are unpleasant, there will be a tendency to make them even more biting. In either case, the truth will be lost. If truth is lost, mutual trust will also be lost and the messenger himself may be imperiled. I say to you that it is a wise rule: “always to speak the truth and never to embellish it. In this way, you will avoid much harm to yourselves.”
This tradition of equal diplomatic dealings between contending states within China was ended by the country’s unification under Qin emperor in 221 BC and the consolidation of unity under the Han dynasty in 206 BC. Under the Han and succeeding dynasties, China emerged as the largest, most populous, technologically advanced and best governed society in the world. Being so powerful and self-esteemed Chinese leaders and diplomats waited at home for foreigners to pay their respects rather than venturing abroad themselves. This “tributary system” lasted until European colonialism overwhelmed it and introduced to Asia European concepts sovereignty, suzerainty, spheres of influence, and other diplomatic norms, traditions and practices.
Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This tradition was described in the “Artha-shastra” written in Sansrit language by Kautilya. It should be emphasized that Kautilya was the principal adviser to Chandra Gupta Mauraya, the founder of the Mauray dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. “Artha-shastra” posited four expedients of statecraft (conciliation, seduction, subversion and coercion) and six forms of state policy (peace, war, nonalignment, alliances, shows of force and double-dealing). To execute policies derived from these strategic points, ancient India fielded three categories of diplomats: plenipotentiaries, envoys entrusted with a single issue or mission, and royal messengers. Besides, there were consular agents who were charged with managing commercial relations and transactions. In addition two kinds of spies were charged with the collection of intelligence, subversion and other forms of covert action.
Detailed rules regulated diplomatic immunities and privileges, the inauguration and termination of diplomatic missions, and the selection and duties of envoys. Thus, Kautilya describes the “duties of an envoy” as sending information to his king, ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty, upholding his king’s honor, acquiring allies, instigating dissention among the friends of his enemy, conveying secret agents and troops (into enemy territory), suborningthe kinsmen of the enemy to his own king’s side etc. He admits that no envoys should ever be harmed, and even if they deliver an “unpleasant” message, they should not be detained.
Some elements of Hindu’s ancient diplomacy have been remained through centuries and are exercised in modern diplomatic system of India and other states.
Notes to the Text
the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese, the Hindus – египтяне, ассирийцы, вавилоняне, древние иудеи, китайцы, индусы;
- the pharaoh Ramses II and Hatursi II, the king of the Hittities – египетский фараон Рамзес II и король хеттов Хатурси II;
- a cuneiform library founded by Sargon II in the 700’s BC – клинописная библиотека, основанная ассирийским царем Шаррум – кен («царь Истинный»);
- Elam – Элам («возвышенная страна») - семитское название древнего государства, расположенного на востоке Вавилонии и Ассирии и соответствовавшее позднейшей Персии с Мидией;
- The reign of Assurbanipal ofAssyria, which lasted until 626 BC – период правления (царствования) царя Ассирии Аширбанипала, который длился до 676 года до Рождества Христова;
Zhuangzi – Чжуан – цзы – китайский философ, живший в 4 в. до н. э. в эпоху «Сражающихся царств» и входивший в число ученых «Ста школ»;
Qin emperor – император Цинь Ши Хуанди, основатель первого централизованного государства в Китае;
Under the Han and succeeding dynasties – во время правления Хань и последующих династий;
“ tributary system” – система зависимости
the “Artha-shastra” written in Sansrit language by Kautilya, the principal adviser of Chandra Gupta Mauraya – «Артхашастра» («Наука о пользе» на санскрите), сводный трактат по науке управления и политике, приписываемый Каутилье – министру основателя династии мауриев Чандрагупта I
expendable members – обычные члены общества
3. Decide if the following statements are true or false:
a. Some attributes of diplomatic practice may be found in primitive societies of Australia, Asia, Africa, etc.
b. Ancient peoples believed that messengers and envoys shouldn’t be violated.
c. Messengers were selected from among ordinary members of society.
d. In 1278 BC there was found a treaty between the pharaoh Ramses II and the King of Hebrews.
e. The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date back to the 2d millennium BC.
f. In China envoys served as hostages to the good behavior of those who sent them.
g. The Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi advised that mutual trust between the states may be established only through messages.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
4. Match the words and phrases in bold from the first part of the text with their meanings given below:
a. Attracting, b. is best expressed by, c. the action of destroying or damaging an established system, belief or government by attacking it indirectly in written or spoken ways, d. to end a disagreement peacefully, e. to make people have a particular feeling or make a situation start to exist, f. competing states, g. excessive and insincere praise, h. the use of force or threats to make someone do something, i. working to someone’s disadvantage behind his (her) back, j. to win to one’s side, k. proceeding risky journeys, l. incite somebody to do something, m. disagreement; discord; contention, n. put at risk of being harmed, injured or destroyed; endanger, o. methods or ways of doing something, p. governing, q. to call up, r. lure, s. excessive or insincere praise, t. to represent something as being better, larger or worse than it really is
5. Complete the following sentences with the given words or phrases. Translate them into Russian language:
expendable, seduction, double – dealing, suborn, imperil, evoke, temptation, expedients, conciliation, engender, flattery, coercion, subversion
a. We must therefore resist the easy B_____________of unilateral action.
b. Most employees feel that management sees them as C ________________.
c. Hearings in State Duma on corruption problems D _______________little trust among public.
d. The old house E______________memories from his childhood.
e. He was sentenced to five years in prison for inciting F _______________of state power.
f. US investigators say they have found “indicators” of exploitation and
G______________of low – level staff at US missions in four Gulf countries.
g. America is in two wars and H __________________Pakistan can’t be regarded as our ally in Afghanistan.
h. Mr. Bloomberg, an independent, said that failing to raise debt limit would
J_______________ America’s status as a superpower.
i. Over the past two decades, North Korea has swung between confrontation and inch – by – inch K_______________ with its neighbors and the United States. (IHT)
j. The political and intellectual elite of Norway stressed the importance of resisting the L ___________________ to respond to the fear by increasing the intolerance of those from the world outside.
k. Drug dealers use the vast sums at their disposal to M_______________ police and customs forces.
l. The warmth of coverage of the North Korean leader’s visit, and the
N _______________of official comments by China, gave Mr. Kim much – needed political support, analysts said.
m. She went to every O ______________ in order to get citizenship in the USA.
6. Answer the following questions:
a. Who maintained intertribal relations in primitive societies?
b. How was the modern concept of diplomatic immunity exercised by primitive peoples?
c. What diplomatic practices are described in ancient Egyptian and Assyrian documents?
d. What forms of diplomacy were practiced in ancient China?
e. How did the Chinese use envoys in the 8th century BC?
f. What advice did the Chinese philosopher Zuangzi give to envoys?
g. What kind of diplomatic system was developed in China under the Qin and Han dynasties?
h. Which document is the ancient diplomacy of India described in?
i. What categories of diplomats were recognized in ancient India?
j. Who were charged with the collection of intelligence and subversion in Indian diplomacy?
k. What were the duties of envoys in India?