CHAPTER 6. MAIN TYPES OF TRANSLATION* Basic Assumptions

Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events, different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.

Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translator's primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation.

Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative

* See "Theory of Translation", Chs. IV, V.

character. Contrariwise, informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect. Within each group further gradations can be made to bring out more specific problems in literary or informative translation.

Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The particular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genre are more literary than linguistic. The great challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit.

The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literary trend the text belongs to, the other works of the same author, the peculiarities of his individual style and manner and sn on. This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good literary translator must be a versatile scholar and a talented writer or poet.

A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.

Translation of scientific and technical materials has a most important role to play in our age of the revolutionary technical progress. There is hardly a translator or an interpreter today who has not to deal with technical matters. Even the "purely" literary translator often comes across highly technical stuff in works of fiction or even in poetry. An in-depth theoretical study of the specific features of technical translation is an urgent task of translation linguistics while training of technical translators is a major practical problem.

In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original. The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to the translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe

the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable to the specialist.

Some types of texts can be identified not so much by their positive distinctive features as by the difference in their functional characteristics in the two languages. English newspaper reports differ greatly from their Russian counterparts due to the frequent use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eye-catching headlines, etc.

When the translator finds in a newspaper text the headline "Minister bares his teeth on fluoridation" which just means that this minister has taken a resolute stand on the matter, he will think twice before referring to the minister's teeth in the Russian translation. He would rather use a less expressive way of putting it to avoid infringement upon the accepted norms of the Russian newspaper style.

Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be expedient to single out translation of official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation. These texts make a category of their own because of the specific requirements to the quality of their translations. Such translations are often accepted as authentic official texts on a par with the originals. They are important documents every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That makes the translator very particular about every little meaningful element of the original which he scrupulously reproduces in his translation. This scrupulous imitation of the original results sometimes in the translator more readily erring in literality than risking to leave out even an insignificant element of the original contents.

Journalistic (or publicistic) texts dealing with social or political matters are sometimes singled out among other informative materials because they may feature elements more commonly used in literary text (metaphors, similes and other stylistic devices) which cannot but influence the translator's strategy. More often, however, they are regarded as a kind of newspaper materials (periodicals).

There are also some minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of the specific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are film scripts, comic strips, commercial advertisements and the like. In dubbing a film the translator is limited in his choice of variants by the necessity to fit the pronunciation of the translated words to the movement of the actor's lips. Translating the captions in a comic strip, the translator will have to consider the numerous allusions to the facts well-known to the regular readers of comics but less familiar to the Russian readers. And in dealing with commercial advertisements he must bear in mind that their sole purpose is to win over the prospective customers. Since the text of translation will deal with quite a different kind of people than the

original advertisement was meant for, there is the problem of achieving the same pragmatic effect by introducing the necessary changes in the message. This confronts the translator with the task of the pragmatic adaptation in translation, which was subjected to a detailed analysis in Ch. 5.

Though the present manual is concerned with the problems of written translation from English into Russian, some remarks should be made about the obvious classification of translations as written or oral. As the names suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it.

There are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it "at sight". A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his "at sight" translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer with TR getting the translation in written form.

These are all, however, modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.

The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence.

There are two main kinds of oral translation — consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original

speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develop his memory.

Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quickwitted thinker.

In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.

Suggested Topics for Discussion

1. What are the two principles of translation classification? What are the main types of translation? What is the difference between literary and informative translations?

2. How can literary translations be sudivided? What is the main difficulty of translating a work of high literary merit? What qualities and skills are expected of a literary translator?

3. How can informative translations be subdivided? Are there any intermediate types of translation? What type of informative translations plays an especially important role in the modern world?

4. What is the main goal of a technical translation? What specific requirements is the technical translator expected to meet? What problems is the theory of technical translation concerned with?

5. What are the main characteristics of translations dealing with newspaper, diplomatic and other official materials? What specific problems emerge in translating film scripts and commercial advertisements?

6. What is the main difference between translation and interpretation? Which of them is usually made at a higher level of accuracy? Are there any intermediate forms of translation?

7. How can interpretation be classified? What are the characteristic features of consecutive interpretation? What is the role of notation in consecutive interpretation?

Text

I

(SCIENTIFIC)

(1) Water has the extraordinary ability to dissolve a greater variety of substances than any other liquid. (2) Falling through the air it collects atmospheric gases, salts, nitrogen, oxygen and other compounds, nutrients and pollutants alike. (3) The carbon dioxide it gathers reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. (4) This, in turn, gives it greater power to break down rocks and soil particles that are subsequently put into solution as nutrients and utilized by growing plants and trees. (5) Without this dissolving ability, our lakes and streams would be biological deserts, for pure water cannot sustain aquatic life. (6) Water dissolves, cleanses, serves plants and animals as a carrier of food and minerals; it is the only substance that occurs in all three states — solid, liquid and gas — and yet always retains its own identity and emerges again as water.

II

(NEWSPAPER)

(7)1 am often asked what I think of the latest opinion poll, especially when it has published what appears to be some dramatic swing in "public opinion". (8) It is as if the public seeing itself reflected in a mirror, seeks reassurance that the warts on the face of its opinion are not quite ugly as all that! (9) I react to these inquiries from the ludicrous posture of a man who, being both a politician and a statistician cannot avoid wearing two hats. (10) I am increasingly aware of the intangibility of the phenomenon described as "public opinion". (11) It is the malevolent ghost in the haunted house of politics. (12) But the definition of public opinion given by the majority of opinion polls is about the last source from which those responsible for deciding the great issues of the day should seek guidance.

Text Analysis

I

1. What type of text is it? What makes you think that it is informative? 56

What type of words are predominant in the text? What branch of science do most of the terms belong to?

2. What is the difference between substance and matter? Why should water fall through the air? How can water "collect" various substances?

3. What elements make up carbonic dioxide? What is carbonic acid? What are carbonates? What other acids or salts do you know? What is solution? How does water provide food for plants and trees?

4. What is the difference between a stream and a river? What do plants need for their growth? When can a lake be called a biological desert? What is pure water? What is aquatic life? Why can pure water not sustain aquatic life?

5. Why can water be called a carrier of food? What do we call water in solid state? What is the general term for liquids and gases? How can water retain its identity? Does it mean that it always has the same properties or the same composition?

II

6. What type of text is this? Are there any literary devices in it? Is its subject literary or informative? Is it narrated in the first or in the third person? Is its author a man of letters or a scientist?

7. What is an opinion poll? What are people usually polled about? Are the results of an opinion poll published in newspapers? What is a swing hi public opinion? Why are the words "public opinion" written in inverted commas? What swing in public opinion may be described as dramatic?

8. In what mirror does the public see itself? What is a wart? What warts are referred to in the text? Why should the public seek any reassurance?

9. What does the author mean by saying that he has to wear two hats? In what way can a phenomenon be intangible? What is a haunted house? Is a "ghost" something real, easily defined or understood?

10. Does a "definition" mean in this context an explanation or the result? What is the meaning of the phrase "He is the last man to help you"? Does the author think the results of an opinion poll to be a reliable source of information?

Problem-Solving Exercises

A. Text Type Features

I. Identify the names of chemical elements in the text and give their Russian equivalents.

П. Find 10 words (other than the names of elements) which have permanent equivalents in Russian.

Ш. Would you use the transcription method to transfer into Russian the

terms "pollutants and nutrients" in sentence (2) or would you opt for a description?

IV. Which of the following phrases, if any, would you choose to translate sentence (2): падая в воздухе, перемещаясь в воздушной среде, выпадая в виде атмосферных осадков? Give your reasons.

V. Name two Russian terms for "carbon dioxide" in sentence (3).

VI. Use a Russian prepositional phrase to translate sentence (3).

VII. How should the structure "this gives it greater power" in sentence (4) be changed in translation to fit the Russian technical usage?

VIII. Suggest a scientific turn of phrase in Russian to translate the phrase "water... serves plants and animals" in sentence (6).

IX. Should the Russian for "three states" in sentence (6) be just три состояния or should the full form агрегатные состояния be preferred?

X. Translate the phrase "it has published what appears to be some dramatic

swing" in sentence (7) transforming "it has published" into опубликованные результаты and "what appears to be" into по-видимому, свидетельствуют.

XL Discuss the pros and cons of the possible Russian structures to begin sentence (8) such as: можно подумать, как будто бы, дело обстоит так, как будто, etc.

XII. Would you retain the figure of speech in sentence (8) in your Russian translation (бородавки на лице общественного мнения) or would you prefer a less extravagant variant, e.g. изъяны?

XIII. Which Russian equivalent is more preferable as the substitute for the "public" in sentence (8): публика, общественность? Why?

XIV. Suggest two Russian idiomatic expressions equivalent to the English idiom "to wear two hats" (sentence 9).

XV. Which of the following Russian equivalents to the English phrase "to seek guidance" (sentence 12) would you prefer: искать совета, спрашивать совета, обращаться за руководством, руководствоваться? Or would you suggest something else?

B. Other Translation Problems

XVI. Make your choice among the Russian words чрезвычайный, экстраординарный, удивительный, особый as the substitute for "extraordinary" in sentence (1). Give your reasons.

XVII. What technical terms can you suggest as appropriate equivalents in such a text to the word "collects" in sentence (2)?

XVIII. What form should be used in Russian to replace the adverbial modifier of purpose expressed by the verb "to form" in sentence (3)?

XIX. What name will you give in Russian to the process which is described in sentence (4) as 'breaking down"?

XX. Suggest Russian equivalents to the phrase "are ... put into solution" in sentence (4).

XXI. Choose between the Russian растворяющая способность, способ-, ность растворять другие вещества as the substitute for "dissolving

ability" in sentence (5).

XXII. Does "emerges" in sentence (6) mean оказывается, выходит or остается?

XXIII. Suggest Russian equivalents to the English adjective "dramatic" in sentence (7) other than драматический or драматичный.

XXIV. What does "as all that*' in sentence (8) mean? Would you render it into Russian or just leave it out?

XXV. Is 'ludicrous" in sentence (9) смехотворный, смешной or rather нелепый? And would you choose for "posture" the Russian положение, поза or позиция?

XXVI. Choose the standard Russian equivalent to the English "described as" in sentence (10). Is it описываемого, именуемого or называемого?

XXVII. What would you prefer as the substitute for the adjective "malevolent" in sentence (11): злобный, злой or зловредный? And is "ghost" — привидение, призрак or rather дух?

XXVIII. Translate sentence (11) using the Russian cliche заколдованный замок. Discuss the advantages of this equivalent.

XXIX. Would you render the phrase "the definition of public opinion" in sentence (12) as определение общественного мнения or would you opt for данные об общественном мнении or something else?

XXX. Does the phrase 'the last source" in sentence (12) mean самый последний источник or самый ненадежный источник? What is its implied sense?

CHAPTER 7. TECHNIQUES OF TRANSLATION*

Basic Assumptions

The study of the linguistic machinery of translation makes it possible to outline the main principles of the translator's strategy.

When confronted with the text to be translated, the translator's first concern is to understand it by assessing the meaning of language units in the text against the contextual situation and the pertaining extralinguistic facts. At the same time the translator must take care to avoid "thinking into" the text, i.e. adding the information which is not, in fact, present in ST.

See "Theory of Translation", Chs. Ill, VIII.

Let us illustrate this procedure by a few examples. Suppose we have the following sentence: 'The Union executive committee passed a resolution advising the workers to "sit-out" elections where neither party offers a candidate whom labor could support." Translating this sentence the translator has to solve a number of problems, trying to get to the meaning of some words or word combinations. He has two main pillars to sustain his judgements: the basic meaning of the unit and the contextual situation. Consider the phrase "to sit out the elections". The basic meaning of "to sit our" is clearly the opposite of "to sit in". One can obviously "sit in the house, the car, the shade", etc. or to "sit out of them", i.e. to be or stay outside some place or space. On the other hand, "to sit out a dance" means not to dance, that is, not to take part in this kind of activities. True, it often implies that you do it unwillingly, that you are just not invited to dance. In our case the workers are recommended to sit out elections by their own will, to show their disapproval of the candidates offered by the two parties. We may conclude that the workers are advised not to go to the polls or to boycott the elections.

Now what is the "Union executive committee" that made the recommendation? Theoretically speaking, any kind of union may have done it. But for practical purposes the translator will take into account the following considerations. First, it is clear that it is some kind of labor organization. Second, it is a union whose activities are directed by an executive committee. Third, the word "union" is often used as a short form for "trade-union" (cf. "a union card", "a union member", etc.). All these facts fit well together, while other possible meanings of "union" (cf. "Union Jack", "union suit" and the like) are obviously out of place. Thus it can be safely concluded that the translation should be «исполнительный комитет профсоюза».

Such conclusions are often made by the translator. What are "out-of-this-world meat prices"? "Meat prices" are prices you buy your meat at, but what is "out of this world"? Evidently, such prices are not "in this world", i.e. they are not found in it or not common to it. Thus the phrase implies "uncommon prices". But the major and perhaps the only characteristics of any prices is that they are either high or low. "Uncommon prices" can be either uncommonly high or uncommonly low. Now if the original runs: 'The people are worried on account of the out-of-this-world meat prices", the choice is clear. Coming back to the linguistic form, the translator may observe that "out of this world" is a stronger way of putting it than is "uncommon". It is closer to "extraordinary", "fantastic", "unheard of, etc. Accordingly, the translation will be «непомерные (баснословные, неслыханные и пр.) цены на мясо».

Of great importance is the translator's ability to draw a line of demar-

cation between the exact imformation that can be really deduced from the text and the presence of several alternatives between which he cannot choose with sufficient certitude. Suppose a man is referred to in the original as "Price Stabilizer E. Arnall". The words 'Trice Stabilizer" are obviously used here as a sort of title. This can lead to a number of important conclusions. "Stabilizer" is obviously not an electrical appliance but "a man who stabilizes". Since it is not an honorary title it should refer to the man's position or occupation. The conclusion is that the man is concerned with the problem of price stabilization by virtue of his official duties. As these duties are mentioned as his personal title (observe the capital letters and the absence of the article), he cannot be an insignificant employee but is a man of high standing. He may be even the head of an office dealing with price-stabilization problems. But this is as far as our guesswork can go. We do not know the name of the office (a board, a committee, an agency, etc.) or whether its head (if E. Arnall is one) was referred to as director, manager or superintendent. Therefore we cannot use in the translation the words: «директор, управляющий, руководитель», etc. Nor can we give the name of his office. Unless we can find a way of getting the required information from some outside source, we shall have to stick to some noncommittal variant, e.g. «Э. Арнал, ведающий вопросами стабилизации цен».

In our previous discussions we have noted that the semantic analysis of the text must take into account both the immediate surroundings, i.e. the meaning of other words and structures in the same sentence, and the broad context which comprises the contents of the whole original text, whether it is a small extract, an article or a large book.

The information that can be gleaned from the original text should be supplemented by the translator's knowledge of the actual facts of life. The words "out of this world" were translated above as «непомерно высокие» as we know that people are not ordinarily worried by prices being reduced.

Analyzing the contents of the original the translator makes the assessment of the relative communicative value of different meaningful elements. In most cases his professed aim is to achieve the closest approximation to the original, i.e. to reproduce its contents in all the details. As long as the linguistic or pragmatic reasons make it impossible and the translation involves a certain loss of information, the translator has not infrequently to choose between several evils. As often as not, one meaningful element of the original can be retained in translation only at the expense of omitting some other part of the contents. The translator has to decide what bits of information he is prepared to sacrifice and what elements of the original meaning are of greater communicative value and should be rendered at any cost.

The choice of the dominant aspect of meaning usually depends on the type of the text and the prevailing pragmatic considerations. While translating, for instance, figurative set expressions the translator may try to preserve their basic metaphorical meaning at the expense of other parts of the contents including the figure of speech that makes up the metaphorical structure of the collocation. In most cases the purport of communication is, first and foremost, to express a certain idea while the figurative way of expressing it is a kind of embellishment, a nice and pleasant luxury which can be dispensed with, if necessary. When "a skeleton in the family cupboard" becomes "a shameful family secret" in translation, there is certainly a loss in expressiveness, but the basic sense is well preserved. The metaphorical meaning will be chosen as the dominant part of the contents in most translations.

In a literary text the poetic or stylistic effect is no less important than the ideas conveyed. The same is true whenever the translator has to deal with a play on words or a sustained metaphor. In such cases the loss of the figurative element may make at least part of the text quite meaningless and it is often considered as the dominant component to be preserved in translation.

By way of example let us discuss the problems involved in the translation of a play upon words. Consider the following sentences:

"He ... said he had come for me, and informed me that he was a page." "Go "long," I said, "you ain't more than a paragraph." (M. Twain)

It is clear that the second sentence would be meaningless but for the play upon the words "page" and "paragraph". The same is true about its translation which will be unintelligible unless the play on words is duly reproduced in TL. This is the dominant goal which should be achieved at all costs even though it might involve some inaccuracies in the translation of other elements.

This is not an easy task but it is not impossible, either. Here is how it was done by N. Chukovsky:

Он сказал, что послан за мною и что он глава пажей, — Какая ты глава, ты одна строчка! — сказал я ему.

It is worthwhile to observe the method that is used to overcome the difficulty. The Russian equivalent for a page boy has no other meaning (or homonym) which is associated with any part of a book or other printed matter. So the translator introduces another word «глава» and on its basis recreates the original play upon words. It does not matter that in doing it he makes the boy the head of the pages which he was probably not. The accurate information about the boy's official standing has obviously received a

lower rating in the translator's assessment than the preservation of the stylistic effect. This inaccuracy seems to be a lesser evil, since the dominant aspect of the original contents is duly rendered in translation.

Assessing the relative communicative value of various elements in the original, it should be borne in mind that translations are made at different levels of equivalence reproducing different parts of the original contents. The identification of the situation and especially the purport of communication are indispensable and are preserved in practically all translations. Naturally, it is these components that usually make up the dominant sense to be reproduced, if necessary, at the expense of the rest of the contents.

The purport of communication and the identification of the situation are not, as a rule, expressed by some particular words or structures but by the whole unit of speech. Therefore it is often the case that the general sense of the unit as a whole is of greater communicative value than the meaning of its individual elements. The translator is thus prepared to sacrifice the part to the whole, the meaning of an element to the meaning of the whole.

This predominance of the whole makes an imprint upon some of the techniques used by translators both for understanding the original text and for establishing a kind of semantic bridge to the translation. It can be observed that the translator first tries to get the most general idea of what is said in the original, to find out, so to speak, "who does what and to whom", to understand the general semantic pattern or framework of the sentence and then fill in the particular details.

The translator may first resort to the word-for-word translation imitating the syntactic structure of the original and using the most common substitutes of all words. The same method can be used to facilitate understanding if the general meaning of the original text eludes the translator.

Thus the translating may begin with an imitation of the original structure in TL to see whether a word-for-word translation is possible or should be replaced by a different structure. In this way the translator decides upon the syntactic framework of his future translation. This technique is not infrequently used as the choice of lexical units may depend, to a large extent, on the syntactic pattern they fit into.

Let us give an illustration. Suppose the original sentence runs as follows: 'The computer and the man-made satellite were, by all rules of heredity, conceived in the small Northern towns of England, the seat of the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century."

The general idea is dear. The sentence implies that the Industrial Revolution initiated the technological progress which is today characterized by such outstanding achievements as computers and artificial satellites. The

first step will be for the translator to try a parallel structure in Russian: «Компьютеры и тд. были созданы (зародились, появились, возникли и пр.) по всем законам наследственности...». It appears that no matter what lexical units are used within the structure, the Russian sentence will somehow imply that modern computers actually were built, invented, or at any rate thought of, in Britain as early as in the 18th century. Now the translator's technique will be to draw up a list of Russian structures used to convey the idea that something which exists today can have its origin traced to much earlier time. He may think of such structures as «X уходит своими корнями в ...», «Y положил начало X», «Здесь находится начало пути, который привел к X», «Здесь были посеяны семена, всходы которых привели к X», etc. Trying to fit the Russian variant into a meaningful whole with the phrase "by all rules of heredity", the translator will probably choose the expression «X ведет свою родословную от Y».

The choice of the structure in translation often calls for a good deal of ingenuity and imagination on the part of the translator. He should be able to make an accurate assessment of the semantic possibilities of the given syntactic structure in order to see whether the latter can be used to convey the original meaning.

Suppose the English sentence is structured with the help of the verb "to add", e.g.: "A new excitement was added to the races at Epsom Downs last year." The problem is to decide whether in Russian it is possible to express this idea in a similar way, that is by saying that a feeling is added to a competition. If the translator finds it unacceptable as being alien to the semantic structure of the Russian language which seems to have less freedom in joining heterogeneous ideas within a syntactic structure, his second problem will be to think of the acceptable Russian way to say "the same thing". Russian would reject "excitement added to the race", but it permits such structures as "the race evoked a new excitement", or "the race was more exciting", or "the race was watched with greater excitement", etc. Thus the translator can make his syntactic choice and then look for appropriate substitutes for "excitement", "race" and other lexical units in the original.

A word of caution may be in order here. In the practical course of translation great pains are usually taken to teach the future translator to replace the original syntactical structures by using appropriate transformations which produce acceptable TL structures without any great loss of information. As a result, some translators get into the habit of turning every original structure inside out syntactically, irrespective of whether it serves any useful purpose.

It should be borne in mind that parallel TL structures are as good as any and they should by no means be avoided or considered inferior. On the contrary, the practical rule that the translator will do well to follow is that he should use the parallel structure whenever possible, and resort to syntactic or semantic transformations only if it is unavoidable.

Thus in all cases the translator makes a choice between a parallel structure and a transformed one in TL. Selecting the transformation to be used in a particular case he draws upon his knowledge of syntactic equivalents and the theory of equivalence.

The choice of the syntactical structure of the translated sentence often depends on the TL co-occurrence rules. The problem of co-occurrence is one with which the translator has not infrequently to come to grips in translating different word combinations, as the rules of combinability in SL and TL do not dovetail. This lack of correspondence limits the freedom of the translator's choice and compels him to employ special techniques to overcome this barrier.

Translations from English into Russian give ample proof of the significance of this difference in co-occurrence. Just try to render into Russian such combinations as "a hopeful voice", "a successful leader", "a cooperative assistance", etc. and you will see that they are easy to understand but cannot be translated "as they are" since the corresponding Russian words do not come together.

Dealing with such problems translators use one of the following methods: they either replace one or both members of the original combination to make possible the same type of structure in translation, or they transfer the dependent member to another structure, or they introduce some additional elements (words) through which the members of the combination can be joined syntactically.

Let us give examples.

Some of these countries have established new constitutions.

In Russian constitutions cannot be established but they can be adopted. Therefore:

Некоторые из этих стран приняли новые конституции, (or: В некоторых из этих стран были приняты новые конституции.)

The AFL leaders have a corrupt alliance with the employers.

Since in Russian the usual correspondence to "corrupt" (продажный) can be applied only to human beings, we can have either «преступный союз» or «преступный сговор» or something like that. But we can also

preserve the meaning of "corrupt" by referring its Russian equivalent to another word in the sentence:

Продажные лидеры АФТ вступили в преступный союз с предпринимателями .

The country had sincere and successful leaders. В стране честные руководители, добившиеся значительных успехов.

After all, successful leaders are those who have achieved good successes and the original meaning is fully preserved in the translation, though in a rather long-winded manner.

An additional way to deal with the problem of co-occurrence is through a choice of different parts of speech. "A cooperative assistance" is difficult to translate into Russian where «сотрудничающая помощь» is an unacceptable combination. But if both words were translated as nouns the problem would be solved:

We owe this success to the cooperative assistance of the Soviet Union. Мы обязаны этим успехом сотрудничеству и помощи со стороны Советского Союза.

The change in the parts of speech is a common procedure in translation. It often enables the translator to modify his variant to improve its stylistic or emotional effect. So, for 'The wind was becoming stronger" the translator has the choice of «Ветер дул все сильнее» and «Ветер крепчал», for "I didn't mean to be rude" he may choose between «Я не хотел быть грубым» and «Я не собирался вам грубить».

Sometimes, the use of a different part of speech is unavoidable: "He was furious" — «Он был в бешенстве»

The elements of the translator's techniques described above give only a general idea of his professional strategy. Translation is a creative process of search and discovery and it takes much ingenuity and effort to apply the general principles of the translation theory to the practical problems.

Suggested Topics for Discussion

1. What are the two main stages of the translating process? Must the translator understand the original text before he begins to produce his text in TL? In what way does the translator's understanding of the source text differ from that by a SL native speaker?

2. What makes understanding possible? Where can the translator find the necessary information of what a segment of the text really means? What is context? What is background knowledge?

3. What role do the semantics of language units play in the make-up of the text semantic structure? In what sense can one speak of "translating" the words or the grammatical categories and structures of the source text? What is the difference between the word "semantics" as defined in the dictionary and its meaning in a particular text?

4. Are all the semantic elements of the source text of equal communicative value? Can they all be always rendered in translation? Why has the translator to adopt a "lesser evil" strategy? How should the dominant aspects of the source text meaning be selected?

5. What parts of the text semantics are usually of greater communicative value? Are the purport of communication and the identification of the situation expressed by individual words and structures or by the whole text? Why is it often more important to render the meaning of the whole than that of each particular item?

6. How can a word-for-word transfer be used in the translating process? Should the syntactical structure of the source text be always changed in translation? How should the TL structures be selected in the target text?

7. What is lexical co-occurrence? Are co-occurrence rules usually the same in SL and TL? What techniques can be used by the translator to solve the problem of the difference in co-occurrence?

8. Does the translation theory dictate strict rules to the translator? What makes translation a creative process? Can the translator automatically apply the theoretical postulates in each particular case?

Text

FAO ... LET THERE BE BREAD

(1) A new excitement has been added to the queer race that Man has run against himself through the ages, testing whether he can produce food fast enough to feed his fast-growing family. (2) In the past the race has never been a contest. (3) Never, in all the yesterdays since he clambered out of the primeval ooze, has Man the Provider caught up with Man the Pro-creator: there has been famine somewhere in the world in nearly every year of recorded history. (4) Even today, after twenty centuries of Christian Enlightment, half man's family goes hungry and vast numbers of them are actually starving to death. (5) Nevertheless, the race has suddenly grown close enough to be charged with suspense. (6) For the Provider has latterly been getting expert coaching from the sidelines and, despite the fact that the Procreator is adding to his family at the unprecedented rate of nearly fifty million a year, the gap is steadily closing. (7) The coach responsible for this remarkable turn of events is the Food and Agricultural Organization, more familiarly known as FAO, a specialized Agency of the United Nations. (8)

As its name suggests, FAO worries more about the eater than about the farmer. (9) The emphasis is natural enough, for farmers (and fishermen and producers of food generally) comprise only about three-fifths of the world's gainfully employed, but we all eat and, to hear FAO tell it, most of us eat wrong. (10) It was, indeed, out of concern for the well-being of eaters the world over that FAO was born.

Text Analysis

1. How can Man run a race against himself? Does this figure of speech represent Man's efforts to produce enough food as a kind of a sport event? Does the added excitement to the race mean that the struggle between the competitors has become unpredictable and more interesting to watch?

2. How can a race not be a contest? Does a contest imply that each of the participants has a chance to win? that there is no overwhelming superiority of one of them?

3. Did Man really clamber out of the primeval ooze? Does the phrase refer to an actual period in Man's evolution or is it just a figure of speech? If the Provider catches up with the Procreator, does it mean that there will be enough food for the earth's growing population? Is recorded history the same as written history or is it the history we knew something about?

4. In what sense can the last twenty centuries be called the years of Christian Enlightment?

5. Is the distance between the participants in a close race great or small? What is a book full of suspense? How can a race be charged with suspense? Does it mean that it has become more thrilling for the on-lookers?

6. Does "to get expert coaching" mean to get good advice from a coach? Is a coach a man who supervises a sportsman's training? When one runner is gaining on the other, is the gap between them widening or closing?

7. If a man is responsible for something does it always mean that he is guilty of something? What is a UN specialized agency?

8. Is the eater a common name for a food consumer? In what respect can the eater be contrasted to the farmer?

9. Are gainfully employed people those who earn their living by their own efforts? If we say that a person eats wrong, do we refer to his table manners or to the quality of food?

10. How can emphasis be expressed syntactically? What is the meaning of the preposition "out of in combinations with such words as 'love, hate, consideration, affection", etc.? In what sense can an organization be born?

Problem-Solving Exercises

I. Suggest the possible Russian structures for the translation of sentence (1) 68

to express the idea that the race has become closer and more interesting to watch.

II. Suggest the Russian substitute for the word "race" in sentence (1). Can

the word гонки be used here? What sports can it be applied to in Russian?

III. What Russian wording can you suggest as the equivalent to the phrase "that Man has run against himself in sentence (1)?

IV. Suggest the possible translations of sentence (2) which will show the absence of the real struggle because the competing sides were too' unequal.

V. Choose the Russian substitute for "the Provider" in sentence (3) among

the words поставщик, добытчик, кормилец and for "the Procreator" among the words производитель, продолжатель рода, родитель. Justify your choice. Can you suggest anything else?

VI. Explain why the term первобытно-общинный строй is no good as a substitute for "the primeval ooze" in sentence (3). Is первобытное болото or even первобытный мрак better? Why?

VII. If you use the Russian word голод as the substitute for the English "famine" in sentence (3), what verbs can you use with it?

VIII. Use a more general word in Russian to render the meaning of "the yesterdays" in sentence (3).

IX. Show how the choice of substitutes for the English "clambered out" in sentence (3) - выкарабкался, выбрался, вышел, etc.— depend on the way you translate the phrase "primeval ooze". Give several variants.

X. Translating the phrase "Christian Enlightment" in sentence (4) try to

change the part of speech to which each of its components belong. Compare the obtained substitute with the caique христианская просвещенность. Where is the loss lesser?

XI. Compare three Russian equivalents to the English "man's family" in sentence (4): человеческая семья, человеческий род, род человеческий. Which of them would you prefer? Why?

XII. Explain the meaning of the phrase "a close race". (Cf. sentence (5).) Can your explanation be used in the translation? If not, suggest a way out.

XIII. Formulate the general idea of the phrase "to be charged with suspense" in sentence (5) and suggest its translation as a whole without rendering the meaning of its components.

XIV. Correct the following wordings in accordance with the co-occurrence rules of the Russian language: разрыв неуклонно закрывается (the gap is steadily closing), более знакомо известная (more familiarly known), послушать, как ФАО говорит это (to hear FAO tell it).

XV. Suggest a substitute for the English "for" in sentence (6) bearing in mind that the Russian sentence should not begin with a subordinative conjunction.

XVI. Analysing the meaning of the English words prove that the phrase "... expert coaching" in sentence (6) can be translated as советы опытного тренера.

XVII. Translating sentence (6) would you prefer the Russian прибавляет (добавляет) к своей семье or увеличивает свою семью as the substitute for the English "is adding to his family? Or would you suggest some other wording?

XVIII. Since "responsible" in sentence (7) has obviously a positive sense, what Russian phrases can be used to express this sense?

XIX. Find out the Russian term for "a specialized agency of the United Nations". What names of other UN bodies do you know?

XX. Find an occasional Russian substitute for the word "suggests" in sentence (8).

XXI. What word order should be chosen in translating the first part of sentence (8)? Why?

XXII. Note that "name" may mean both имя and название. Which of them would you prefer in sentence (8)?

XXIII. Compare the following substitutes for the word "eater" in sentence (8): едок, питающийся, потребитель, потребитель пищи. Which of them would you choose, if any?

XXIV. Would you use the Russian рыбаки or рыболовы as the substitute for the English "fishermen" in sentence (9)? Give your reasons.

XXV. Suggest some Russian substitutes for the word "emphasis" in sentence (9)?

XXVI. Find out the Russian term equivalent to the English "gainfully employed".

XXVII. State if a word-for-word translation большинство из нас ест неправильно renders the meaning of the phrase "most of us eat wrong" in sentence (9) correctly. If not, suggest a better wording.

XXVIII. Suggest the way of rendering into Russian the emphasis of the English structure "It was... that" in sentence (10).

XXIX. Look up the word "indeed" in an English-English and English-Russian dictionary and make a careful study of its meanings and equivalents.

XXX. Translating the phrase "FAO was born" in sentence (10), make a choice among the Russian: ФАО была рождена, ФАО была создана, ФАО появилась на свет. Give your reasons.