Appendix ii research manuscripts
Research manuscripts typically consists of these sections (and in this order!)
1. Title 6. Discussion
2. Abstract 7. Acknowledgments
3. Introduction 8. Literature Cited
4. Materials and Methods 9. Tables (if used)
5. Results 10. Figures (if used)
| 1. TITLE Examples | Be concise but descriptive, although you do not want to be vague or incorrect. This is your first chance to grab the reader’s attention. Capitalize all words, except articles and prepositions. |
| 2. ABSTRACT Example Checklist | An abstract summarizes your work in one concise paragraph (usually less than 250 words). It should state the object of the study, describe the methods employed, and summarize results and primary conclusions. It is usually easiest to write the abstract after completing the other sections of the paper. Specific suggestions: ● 2 sentences – describe the general problem being addressed and then introduce the objectives or hypotheses that your particular study considers. ● 1-2 sentences – describe the technique(s) used (avoid experimental details). ● 1-3 sentences – report the most significant results from the experiment. ● Last sentence – concluding statement. ● References are not cited in an abstract. |
| 3. INTRODUCTION Example Checklist Back to top | The introduction should establish the existing state of knowledge of your research topic and then identify the specific focus of your work. Information typically flows in the following manner: ● Start with a relatively broad background of the topic you are investigating. Include relevant citations from primary literature and other appropriate technical references ● Progressively narrow the scope of the ideas considered so that the reader is led to the specific topic that you are studying. Using primary literature, justify how this topic requires additional study. ● In the last sentences of the final paragraph, succinctly state 1-3 specific objectives or hypotheses that your study addresses. A crystal-clear statement of objectives/hypotheses is critical. Virtually all material in your manuscript should directly pertain to these objectives and hypotheses. |
| 4. MATERIALS and METHODS Examples Checklist Back to top | In writing the Materials and Methods section, you need to describe what you did in such a way that other scientists can follow and duplicate your experiment. One of the most difficult things in writing a Materials and Methods section is deciding how much detail to give the reader. Too much detail can make this section excessively long. You should try to be concise, but complete. Other pointers: ● Write in third person and past tense. ● Describe what you did. ● Do not tell the reader how to do the experiment as if you were writing a cookbook or lab manual. ● For field studies, include the locations and times that data were collected. ● Avoid the use of slang or jargon. |
| 5. RESULTS Examples Checklist Back to top | This section describes the results of your work and includes a summary of the data found in your tables and figures. ● Write with accuracy, brevity and clarity. ● Use a good topic sentence for each of your paragraphs. ● Avoid discussing the results. Save such comments for the Discussion section. ● Summarize statistical analyses. About results summarized in tables and figures: ● Construct tables and figures before writing the Results section. ● Include a summary of each table / figure in the Results section. ● Number tables and figures in the same sequence as they are first mentioned in the text. ● Figures and tables should be appropriately cited in the text of the manuscript. |
| 6. DISCUSSION Examples Checklist Back to top | This section is often the most challenging section to write. In this section your should interpret your data and draw conclusions regarding your hypothesis. Avoid repeating the results section– evaluate your data and their implications in a broader context (i.e. why should anyone care about this?). Key points: ● Key findings should be emphasized first. ● Compare your results and interpretation to other studies in the primary literature: Does your data agree with current models or refute them? How has your work added to our knowledge of this phenomenon or organism or system? ● Provide explanations of any unexpected results and describe any problems encountered during the experiment. ● If you had problems during the experiment or if you are not satisfied with your results, tell how the methods could be altered to provide more definitive results. ● Describe future experiments or the broad meaning of your results. |
| 7.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Examples | Professionally acknowledge individuals and organizations that were important in making your study possible. Avoid being “gushy” or overly flip. |
| 8. LITERATURE CITED Examples Back to top | Each of the references cited in your manuscript (in the Introduction, Discussion, etc.) must be listed in the Literature Cited section. Avoid listing uncited references! The format of this section is highly formalized and varies somewhat among journals and organizations. Be sure to determine what format is appropriate for your manuscript and follow it carefully and consistently! Two general citation options are used in scientific papers — the “name-year convention”and the “citation-sequence”convention. Review the examples to see how these conventions differ. Relevant links: Primary literature and other appropriate technical references Literature citations vs. literature references: two formatting conventions (name-year vs. citation-sequence). |
| 9. TABLES Examples Checklist Back to top | Tables allow precise numerical presentation of data. They should be concise and organized. All tables should have the following elements: ● Title. Tables are numbered (1, 2, 3...) in order of their being referenced in the text. The title is at the top of the table. It should briefly describe the information presented in the table. ● Column and row headings. Column headings contain names of the variables measured in your investigation (and their units of measurement). Row headings identify entries in the table rows. Only the initial letter of words or phrases in column and row heading is capitalized. ● Subheadings. Subheadings are sometimes useful for grouping similar variables in a table. ● Body (numerical data). Align the columns of numbers by their decimal points using word processor decimal tabs. Also, place a zero before the decimal point of numbers less than 1 (e.g., 0.1, not .1). ● Horizontal lines. All tables have at least 3 horizontal lines that separate (1) the table title from the column headings, (2) the column headings from the body, and (3) the body from the footnotes. DO NOT use vertical lines in tables. ● Footnotes. Footnotes contain explanatory information. ● Double space the entire table. |
| 10. FIGURES Examples Checklist Creating figures with Excel Back to top | Figures include graphs, maps, photos, and technical diagrams. Presentation of data in graphs is generally more desirable than tables because they aid the reader in visualizing trends in the data. There are various types of graphs, but the most common graphs used in scientific writing are scatter plots, line graphs,and vertical bar graphs.Spreadsheet software typically has good figure construction features. Regardless of the type of graph constructed, all contain the following similar elements: ● Axes. A graph consists of a horizontal axis and a vertical axis. Values of the independent variable (the cause or what you manipulated) are plotted on the horizontal axis and values of the dependent variable (the effect or the outcome you measured) are plotted on the vertical axis. ● Labels.Both axes should be clearly and briefly labeled. Labels should include variables and units of measure. •Tick marks.The axes should be evenly incremented. They should include the range of data and should be kept to a minimum to avoid cluttering the figure. ● Legend.The legend should briefly describe the information in the figure. It should be clear, concise, and informative. The figure legend should be understandable without reference to the text. As with tables, figures are numbered in order of reference in the text. Spreadsheet software packages can be used to make figures. When you create figures for a manuscript, avoid using colour for any element (bars, lines, symbols, axes, etc.) in the figure. All elements in the figure should be constructed in black or gray-scale. A surprising variety of bars, lines, and symbols may be created without color. (However, when making figures for posters or electronic slide shows, use of colored elements is recommended.) |
APPENDIX III BOOK REVIEWS
1.The Quest for World Environmental Cooperation. The Case of the UN