Traffic laws and enforcement

The German autobahn network is patrolled by unmarked police cars and motorcycles equipped with video cameras; this allows the enforcement of laws (tailgating, for example) which are often viewed in other countries as difficult to prove in court. Notable laws include the following:

· Autobahns in Austria and Germany may only be used by powered vehicles that are designed to achieve a maximum speed exceeding 60 km/h (Switzerland: 80 km/h).

· The right lane must be used when it is free and the left lane is generally intended for passing maneuvers only; drivers using the left lane for prolonged periods of time when the other lanes are free may be fined by Autobahn police.

· Overtaking on the right (Undertaking) is forbidden, except in traffic jams where it may be practiced with caution. The fact that the car overtaken is illegally occupying the left-hand lane is not an acceptable excuse; in such cases the police will routinely stop and fine both drivers.

· In a case of a traffic jam, the drivers must form an emergency lane to guarantee that emergency services can reach the scene of the accident. This lane has to be formed between the left lane and the lane next to the left lane.

· It is unlawful for a driver to stop their vehicle on the road for any reason except in an emergency and/or situations where stopping is unavoidable, such as being in a traffic jam or being involved in a collision. This includes stopping on emergency lanes. Running out of fuel is considered preventable and is consequently fined. In some cases, it can also be deemed a crime, and the driver can be given a prison sentence.

· The distance between vehicles (in meters) should be at least half the speed (in km/h) at all times (e.g. at least 60 meters at 120 km/h). This corresponds to a “lead time” of just under 2 seconds. As a reference: the white-and-black reflection posts to the right have a distance of 50 m to each other. Again, the fact that the car in front is illegally occupying the left-hand lane when the right-hand lane is free does not excuse following too closely.

Fines for tailgating were increased in May 2006. At speeds over 100 km/h, keeping less than 30 percent of the recommended distance now results in a suspension of ones driver's license for one to three months.

· Due to legal regulations it is allowed to honk and flash headlights in order to indicate the intention of overtaking, but a proper distance to the vehicle in front must be maintained. Driving at insufficient distances--even when flashing ones headlights--is illegal.

· The tires must be approved for the vehicle’s top speed (winter tires (mud- and snow-tires) for lower speeds (i.e. cheaper than high-speed tires) are allowed, but the driver must have a sticker in the cockpit reminding of the maximum speed).

Unit 13 Causeway

The rail causeway The causeway to Antelope Island in

across the Wadden Sea to the Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA

the island of Sylt in Germany

In modern usage, a causeway is a road or railway elevated by a bank, usually across a broad body of water or wetland. A transport corridor that is carried instead on a series of arches, perhaps approaching a bridge, is a viaduct. The distinction between the terms causeway and viaduct becomes blurred when flood-relief culverts are incorporated. Many causeways are tidal, being covered for a period surrounding high tide.

Derivation of the word

When first used, the word appeared in a form such as “causey way” making clear its derivation from the earlier form “causey”. This word seems to have come from the same source by two different routes. It derives ultimately, from the Latin for heel, calx and as near certainly as may be, comes from the trampling technique for consolidating earthworks. In antiquity, the construction was trodden down, one layer at a time, by people such as slaves. Alternatively, a flock of sheep might be used. Today, a machine does the job. The same technique would have been used for road embankments, raised river banks, sea banks and fortification earthworks.

The second derivation route is simply the hard, trodden surface of a path. The name by this route came to be applied to a firmly-surfaced road. It is now little-used except in dialect and in the names of roads which were originally notable for their solidly-made surface. The word is comparable in both meanings with the French chaussée, from a form of which it reached English by way of Norman French. The French adjective, chaussée, carries the meaning of having been given a hardened surface, and is used to mean either paved or shod. As a noun chaussée is used on the one hand for a metalled carriageway, and on the other for an embankment with or without a road.

Engineering

The modern embankment may be constructed within a cofferdam: two parallel steel sheet pile or concrete retaining walls, anchored to each other with steel cables or rods. This construction may also serve as a dyke that keeps two bodies of water apart, such as bodies with a different water level on each side, or with salt water on one side and fresh water on the other. This may also be the primary purpose of a structure, the road providing a hardened crest for the dike, slowing erosion in the event of an overflow. It also provides access for maintenance as well perhaps, as a public service.

Examples of Use

The Causeway Section of the still under-construction Cebu South Coastal Road in Cebu, The Philippines

Notable causeways include those that connect Singapore and Malaysia (the Johor-Singapore Causeway), Bahrain and Saudi Arabia (25-Km long King Fahd Causeway) and Venice to the mainland, all of which carry roadways and railways. In the Netherlands there are a number of prominent dykes which double as causeways, including the Afsluitdijk, Brouwersdam, and Markerwaarddijk. In Louisiana, two very long bridges, called the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, stretch across Lake Pontchartrain for almost 38 km, making them the world's longest bridges (if total length is considered instead of span length). In the Republic of Panama a causeway connects the islands of Perico, Flamenco, and Naos to Panama City on the mainland. It also serves as a breakwater for ships entering the Panama Canal.

Causeways are also common in Florida, where low bridges may connect several man-made islands, often with a much higher bridge (or part of a single bridge) in the middle so that taller boats may pass underneath safely. Causeways are most often used to connect the barrier islands with the mainland.

The Churchill Barriers in Orkney are of the most notable sets of causeways in Europe. Constructed in waters up to 18 metres deep, the four barriers link five islands on the eastern side of the natural harbour at Scapa Flow. They were built during World War II as military defences for the harbour, on the orders of Winston Churchill.

Precautions in Use

Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach erosion or changed deposition patterns. This, for instance, has been a problem at the Hindenburgdamm in northern Germany. Causeways are often a problem with an approaching hurricane or strong tropical storm, because the high winds and waves make them dangerous. Along with traffic jams, this is a major reason for the early emergency evacuation of island residents during a weather emergency.

Unit 14 Street

A street is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic.

The word “street” is sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for “road,” but city residents and urban planners draw a crucial distinction: a road’s main function is transportation, while streets facilitate public interaction. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass. Conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets.