The history of personal computing
One of the most important developments leading to the personal computer revolution was the invention of the semiconductor, or transistor, in 1948. This feat was accomplished by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, who were engineers working at Belt Telephone Laboratories. The transistor, nothing more than a solid-stale electronic switch, replaced the much larger vacuum tube and consumed significantly less power in tube's job. Thus, a computer system built with transistors was much smaller and more efficient.
The tube also could act as a switch but was inefficient in this role. A tube consumed a great deal of electrical power and gave off enormous heat.
The switch to transistors began the trend toward miniaturization that has enabled today's small laptop PC systems, which run on batteries, to have more computing power than many earlier systems that filled rooms and consumed huge amounts of electrical power.
In 1959, engineers at Texas instruments figured out how to put more than one transistor on the same base material and connect the transistors without wires. Thus, the integrated circuit, or 1C, was born. The first 1C contained only six transistors, but the Intel 80386 in many of today's systems has 280,000. Today, 1C can be built with millions of transistors on-board.
In 1969, a company called Intel made waves in the industry by introducing a 1 К ‑ bit memory chip, which was much larger than anything else available at the time. Because of Intel's success in chip manufacturing, the company Japanese-calculator manufacturer called Busicomp and was asked to produce 12 chips for creation of Busicomp's calculator scientific designs. Engineers at Intel took the 12-chtp design and incorporated all the desired functions and capabilities into a single" generic" multipurpose chip. This chip was different from previous designs. The new chip read a variable set of instructions from memory, which Intel already had been producing. The concept was to design what was almost an entire computing device on a single chip. This first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit microprocessor, introduced in 1971. The successor to the 4004 was the 8008 5-bit microprocessor in 1972.
In 1973, some of the first microcomputer kits based on the 8008 chip were developed. In late 1973, Intel introduced the 8080 microprocessor, which was 10 time faster than the earlier 8008 chip and also could have 64 К of memory.
With a cover story In the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics magazine, a company called MITS introduced the Altair kit, which is generally considered to be the first personal computer- This kit included an 8080 processor, a power supply, a front panel with a great deal of lights, and an enormous 256 bytes ( not kilobytes) of memory. The kit sold for 5395 and had to be assembled. The new processor-inspired other companies to write programs, including the CP/M ( Control Program for Microprocessors) operating system and first version of Microsoft BASIC-NOW things really started moving. IBM introduced its first "personal computer" in 1975. The Model 5100 had 16K of memory, a built-in BASIC language Interpreter, and a built-in cartridge tape drive for storage. The Mode! 5100 was succeeded by the 5110 and 5120 before IBM introduced the IBM Personal Computer (which was called the Model 5150).
In 1976, a new company called Apple Computer introduced the Apple I. This system consisted of a main circuit board screwed onto a piece of plywood. A case and power supply were not included; the buyer had to supply them. The Apple I was followed in 1977 by the Apple II. The Apple II, because of its enormous success, helped to set the standards for nearly all the microcomputers , including the IBM PC.
In 1980, the microcomputer world was dominated by two main factions of computers. One faction was the Apple II, which claimed of loyal users and a gigantic software base that was grow at a fantastic rate. Also available were ail the systems that had evolved from the original MITS Altair. These system were compatible with each other and were distinguished by their use of the CP/M operating system and expansion slots that followed the S-100 ( for slot with 100 pins) standard. Although built by a variety of companies and selling under various names, these systems all were able (for the most part) to use the same software and plug-in hardware
ACCURATE TIME
All the world lives by the “Dearth time" or the "star time" as the astronomers call it. It means that our clocks are timed according to the earth's rotation, for the turning earth is the master clock by which all other clocks are set1.
This nightly task of timing the earth's rotation is carried out at the observatories of various countries. What an astronomer does is to determine how the star time compares with the average time of the observatory's master clocks.
To keep them as exact as possible, the clocks are protected from all outside influence. The pendulum clocks are kept underground, away from vibrations and changing temperatures Each pendulum swings in a vacuum (that is, in a case from which the air has been pumped out), for air resistance would gradually slow down their time of swing. Each pendulum swings in a different direction, too, so that the vibration of one will not affect another.
The observatories' time signals are based on crystal clocks since they are the most accurate. Vibrating crystals by means' of which these clocks are run, are sealed inside vacuum tubes and kept vibrating by electric current.
To provide the accurate telling of time an exact measure of time is required. Such a measure is the "standard second," that is made available just as the "standard metre" and other units of measurement.
In today's world not only the second but even a fraction of a second plays an important part.
Our electric clocks are run by current that vibrates-60 times a second. If they vary from that, they are wrong.
X-ray pictures taken in one millionth of a second are now possible, to reveal what is happening inside machines operating at a very high speed.
But we are chiefly interested in the time we live by, standard time, divided into hours and minutes. An hour is a man-made thing, just one-twenty-fourth part of the time it takes for the earth to make one complete turn.
To-day the world runs on standard time, but not so long ago most localities used their own local time. In 1884 an International Meridian Conference extended standard time to the entire world which was divided into 24 time zones. Standard time in each zone varied by one hour from the next, the time at Greenwich being taken as the zero point.
In future we may use atoms to measure time, because they have within them very precise frequencies of oscillation that will prevent the clock from gaining or losing. A crystal could be adjusted to vibrate at the same rate as the atoms of some pure element.
The crystal's vibrations could be used to run a clock. Such an atom-controlled clock would keep more accurate time than the turning earth itself.
Note
1. to set a clock ‑ поставить часы по точному времени
TELEVISION AND RADIO
Various radio and television programs are presented by the BBS. There ate four I separate radio channels, each of which specializes. Radio broadcasts mainly pop music, Radio2 provides light music, comedy programs, sports; Radio3 offers serious music, talk on serious subjects and plays of a classical nature; Radio4 concentrates on the spoken word ‑ i.e. talks and discussions, plays, etc . The BBC has opened local, radio station in a number of large cities and towns. The BBC also broadcasts special programs about Britain ‑ in fifty different languages as well as in English ‑ to all parts of the world.
The BBC has two television channels: BBC1 and BBC2. BBC2 provides a more serious alternative to BBC1, although it also shows films and some comedies. Usually, the same BBC television programs are seen all over the country, but there are a few various for local interest. Radio and television programs are given in the BBC magazine the Radio Times. There is also a weekly magazine, The Listener, in which outstanding talks are published.
There are fifteen different program companies, each serving a different part of the country. The present ITV (Independent Television). These companies are supported by firms who use them for advertising. ITV programs are interrupted at regular intervals by advertisers. The weekly magazine, TV times, advertises all ITV programs.
Announcing in television is part of what is called "Presentation", the department which presents programs. Announcings are necessary because without them television would proceed in a series of disconnected jars.
What is the right personality? There are several obvious answers. A good appearance is naturally of the first importance. This does not mean good looks alone. The first assets are in attractive face and a reasonably good figure in a woman, and, in a man, the ability to hold himself will. Next comes intelligence. It includes first a good understanding of the language, and a very large measure of common sense. You must also have a good memory.
Next to appearance and intelligence you should have a friendly, likeable manner, not over friendly or with any hint of that detestable chumminess which is the stamp of insincerity. The right kind of voice is important. It must be pleasant, yet have sufficient quiet authority to make the viewer listen to that being said. You are there as an announcer to convey information and to get the viewer to listen to information and to get the viewer to listen to it. "Confidence" is perhaps a better world then "authority" in this connection and it is linked with the most important thing of all ‑ the ability to be posed and at else before the cameras. If you have this gift by nature, you are fortunate: not too many possess it. The majority of people are self- conscious or become so when they face a microphone or camera.
Questions
1. What corporation presents radio and television programs in Great Britain?
2. What are the functions of the separate radio channels?
3. What language does BBC broadcast?
4. How many television channels does the BBC have?
5. What are the functioned of BBC 1 and BBC2?
6. In what magazine are there radio and television programs?
7. Where are outstanding talks published?
8. How many program companies are there? What are they called?
9. Do these companies use advertising in their programs?
10. Why are announcers necessary?
11. What are the requirements to the announcers?
УСТНЫЕ ТЕМЫ
Тема № 1
Sports in Great Britain
England is a sports-loving nation1. Sports in England take many forms: organized sports2, which attract huge crowds3 to encourage their favourite team4 to victory, athletic games5 played for recreation6 and others.
Some sports are called spectator sports7, when the number of spectators is greater than the number of people playing in the game. Other sports are called participant8, sports attracting large crowds only on special occasions such as tournaments9.
The game peculiarly associated with England is cricket. Many other games too are English in origin, but have been accepted with enthusiasm10 in other countries; cricket has been seriously and extensively accepted only in the Commonwealth11, particularly in Australia, India, Pakistan.
Cricket is slow, and a spectator, sitting in the afternoon sun after his lunch, may be excused for having a little sleep for half an hour. Cricket is making no progress in popularity12. Association football13 or soccer is very popular. Nearly 49 million spectators each year attend matches between the great professional teams organized by the Football League14. The biggest event in England is the Cup Final15 played at the Empire Stadium, Wembley, in a London suburb.
Rugby football is played with an egg-shaped ball which may be carried and thrown (but not forward). Rugby is played mainly by the amateurs16.
The games of golf and tennis are played by great numbers of people. Golf is played in the countryside. It consists in driving a small ball towards and into holes separated by considerable distances, by means of special «golf clubs17» The aim is to go round using as few strokes18 as possible. There are many tennis clubs, but every town provides tennis courts in public parks. The world championship19 tennis matches are held at Wimbledon in London, during June and July.
Next to football, the chief spectator sport in Britain is horse-racing. A lot of people are interested in the races and risk money on the horse20 which they think will win. Britain is also famous, for motor-car racing21, boat-racing22, dog-racing23, and even races for donkeys. The famous boat-race between the teams of Oxford and Cambridge attracts large crowds of people.
Various forms of athletics, such as running, boxing, jumping, swimming are wide-spread24 in England. The English weather is not always cold enough to ski, skate, or toboggan25, but winter is a good season for hunting and fishing. Indeed sport in one form another forms an essential part of daily life in Britain.
Notes
| 1. a sports-loving nation - | нация любителей спорта |
| 2. organized sports - | организованный спорт |
| 3. to attract crowds - | зд.: привлекать большое количество зрителей |
| 4. to encourage one's favourite team - | болеть за любимую команду |
| 5. an athletic game - | спортивная игра |
| 6. to play a game for recreation - | играть во что-либо ради отдыха |
| 7. a spectator sport - | «зрительский» вид спорта |
| 8. participant - | массовый (о виде спорта) |
| 9. a tournament - | турнир |
| 10. to be accepted with enthusiasm - | приниматься с энтузиазмом |
| 11. the Commonwealth - | Британское Содружество |
| 12. to make no progress in popularity | не становиться более популярным |
| 13. association football (soccer) - | традиционный футбол |
| 14. to be organized by the Football League - | организовываться Лигой футбола |
| 15. the Cup Final - 16. an amateur - 17. a golf club - 18. a stroke - 19. a world championship match - 20. to risk money on the horse - 21. motor-car racing - 22. boat-racing - 23. dog-racing - 24. to be wide-spread - 25. to toboggan - Ответьте на вопросы: | финал Кубка любитель клюшка в гольфе удар матч чемпионата мира поставить деньги на лошадь авторалли гонки на лодках собачьи бега быть широко распространенным кататься на санях, санках |
1. What forms does sport in England take?
2. What game is associated with Great Britain?
3. What is the difference between the two kinds of football played in the United Kingdom?
4. What kind of game is golf?
5. What are other spectator sports popular in England?
6. What forms of athletics are wide-spread in England?
Тема № 2
SCIENCE IN BRITAIN
Learned societies1 and independent scientific institutes play a large part in promoting the sciences in Britain, although they do very little actual research.
Most pure research is conducted in the universities, which also play an essential part in maintaining the supply of trained specialists. The learned societies play an important part in the discussion and publication of the results of research.
During the recent years there has been a considerable expansion of scientific and technological training and research within the universities. Most universities have the departments of engineering, some of them including chemical, aeronautical and production engineering2. Universities in industrial centres have long been known for studies relating to their local industries. All universities and university colleges have laboratories or research departments.
The traditional method of scientific publication, in which results are written in papers and published in journals, is still the main means communication among scientists. The leading learned societies have for long been important agencies for communicating scientific information. The most eminent of the learned societies are:
The Royal Society Which was founded in 1660. Its present activities include the holding of the scientific meetings, publication of research work, mainly in the "Philosophical Transactions" and the "Proceedings", the delivery of lectures, the presentations of medals. Although an independent corporation, the Society has always had a special relationship with the government.
The Royal Society of Arts which was founded in 1754. Its principal object has been to promote the progress of all departments of science. It. deals with scientific, artistic, technical, industrial and commercial problems. The Society regularly holds meetings and publishes a monthly journal.
The British Association for the advancement of Science which was founded in 1831 to promote general interest in science and its application. One of its chief activities is the annual meetings attended by many young students as well as by eminent scientists. Its 14 sections cover the whole range of pure and applied sciences and there is a division for studying the social and international relations of science.
Notes
1. learned societies ‑ научные общества
2. production engineering ‑ организация производственного процесса
Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What part do learned societies play?
2. What departments have most Universities?
3. Is pure research conducted in the Universities?
4. What is the main means of communicating among scientists?
5. What are most eminent learned societies?
Тема № 3