The work of the vocal cords

According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation consonants are subdivided into voiced and voiceless. The force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of voiceless consonants therefore they are called by the Latin word “fortis”, which means “strong, energetic”. Voiced consonants are called “lenis”, “soft, weak”, because the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension in their articulation are weaker. Sonorant sounds do not enter “fortis” – “lenis” opposition.

Voiced consonants are: [b, d, g, z, v, ð, ʒ, m, n, ŋ, 1, r, j, w, ʤ].

Voiceless consonants are: [p, t, k, s, f, θ, h, ∫, t∫].

The position of the soft palate

According to the position of the soft palatethe consonants are divided into oralandnasal. In the production of nasal consonants the soft palate is low so that all the air goes out through the nose – [m, n, ŋ].

Unit 14

Assimilation

Main Theoretical Concepts:

Assimilation is a modification in the articulation of a consonant under the influence of an adjacent consonant. It is the chief factor due to which the principal variants of phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones.

The consonant which articulation of which is modified is called the assimilated sound.

The consonant, which influences the articulation of the neighboring consonant, is called the assimilating sound.

Assimilation may affect all the features of the articulation of consonant or only some of them.

1. a) the point of articulation, i.e. the principal (alveolar) variants of the phonemes [t, d, n, l, s, z,] are replaced by their subsidiary dental variants.

b) both the point of articulation and the active organ of speech.

e.g. congress- the forelingual alveolar [n] is replaced by the back - lingual velar [ŋ] if the prefix con-bears either a primary or a secondary stress.

I can go [ I k∂n 'g∂u] → [ I kŋ 'g∂u] - a vowel between [n] and [k] in an unstressed syllable is omitted in rapid speech so [n] → [ŋ]

2. the manner of the production of noise

e.g. give me ['gIm mI]

The constrictive noise fricative [v] before the occlusive nasal sonorant [m] at the word boundary in rapid speech is modified. So [v] → [m] - constrictive → occlusive sonorant.

let me ['lem mI] - [t] → [m] - occlusive noise plosive → occlusive sonorant

The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of:

a) lateral explosion: when a plosive is followed by [l]

e.g. pleasure, candle, cattle

The closure for the plosive is not realized till the off-glide for [l]: the sides of the tongue are lowered and the air escapes along them with lateral explosion.

b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion in the clusters:

1. of 2 similar plosives [pp, pb, tt, td, kk, kg]

2. of 2 plosives with different points of articulation [kt, dg, tb]

There is only one explosion for the 2 plosives. The closure of the organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first one.

e.g. act, fact, good girl

c) nasal plosion - a plosive followed by the syllabic [n, m] has no release, the air escapes through the nasal cavity

e.g. button, submarine

3. the work of the vocal cords

A voiceless consonant may be replaced by a voiced one under the influence of the adjacent voiced consonant or vice versa

e.g. goose , goose berry - voiceless [s] → voiced [z]

used , used to - voiced [z] → voiceless [s]

The English sonorants [m, n, l, r, j, w] are partly devoiced when they are preceded by the voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k]

e.g. small, please, try, slow, quick, twenty

4. the lip position

The labialized subsidiary variants of the phonemes [k, g, t, s,] etc. are used under the influence of the following bilabial sonorant [w]

e.g. quick ['kwIk], twenty ['twentI], language

5. the position of the soft palate

Nasal consonants influence oral ones

e.g. let me [lem mI'] - [t] → [m], oral → nasal

kindness - [d] → [n], oral → nasal

Unit 15

Assimilation

Main Theoretical Concepts:

Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present - day pronunciation is called living.

Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical.

e.g. question ['kwestjǝn] → ['kwesʧn]

As far as the direction of assimilation is concerned it can be:

1. progressive (A → B), when the 1^st of the 2 sounds affected by the assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself

e.g. what's this - [z] is replaced by [s] under the influence of [t]

2. regressive (A←B), when the preceding consonant is influenced by the one following it.

e.g. news , newspaper - [z] → [s] under the influence of [p]

3. reciprocal, double (A↔B), when two adjacent consonants influence each other

e.g. twenty ['twentI] - [t] becomes labialized under the influence of [w]. [w] is assimilated to the voiceless plosive [t] and is partly devoiced.

Assimilation may be of three degrees:

1. complete: the articulation of the assimilated consonant fully coincides with that of the assimilating one

e.g. horse - shoe (horse + shoe ) - [s] changes into [s]

does she - [z] → [S] in rapid speech

2. partial: the assimilated consonant retains its main phonemic features and becomes only partly similar in some feature of its articulation to the assimilating sound.

e.g. [t, d, n, l, s, z] are assimilated to the dental consonants [t, d]

3. intermediate: the assimilated consonant changes into a different sound but does not coincide with the assimilating consonant.

e.g. goose , gooseberry - [s] [z] under the influence of [b]

Assimilation is called contextual if the articulation of a word is changed in combination with other words

e.g. news, newspaper, horse-shoe, etc.

The modification can be conditioned: a) by the complementary distribution of the phonemes; b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words; c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial.

SECTION II

LISTENING COMPREHENSION

Unit 1

Topic of the report: Parts of the world (continents, oceans).

Listening: Round the world. Guess the country.

Task: You will hear three guessing games. One person thinks of a country, and says two or three things about it. The others try to guess the country. Listen to the tape and, every time there is a pause, try to guess the country.

After listening to the dialogs twice, reproduce them from the third person singular.

Words:the Caribbean

the Mediterranean

Iceland

mountainous

to be divided

jungles

Unit 2

Topic of the report: Spiders: tarantula, black widow.

Listening: Tarantula. One day in California. Fear of spiders.

Task: You will hear four extracts about spiders. After listening to it, mark the facts about tarantulas in the table. Which do you think are true? Write ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in column A and B.

Facts	A	B
Tarantulas are the biggest of all spiders.
Black widow spiders are more dangerous than tarantulas.
Tarantulas can bite.
Tarantulas are poisonous.
Pet rabbits are more dangerous than tarantulas.
Most snakes are poisonous.
Most spiders are poisonous.

After listening to the stories twice, reproduce them from the third person singular.

Words:

tarantula

sandhills

black widow

bite

poisonous

jogging

dangerous

hairy

harmless

spider

Topic of the report for the next listening: Tell about embarrassing situations that have ever happened to you.

Here are some examples:

- After a meal in a restaurant, you realise you have no money with you.

- You see someone you’ve met before, and you can’t remember their name.

- You forget a close friend’s birthday.

- etc.

Unit 3.

Topic of the report: Tell about embarrassing situations that have ever happened to you.

Listening: Embarrassing moments. Sunday afternoon.

Task: You will hear a woman telling a story about an embarrassing occasion. The story is in eight sections. Each time the tape stops, try to guess what will happen in the next section, and complete the sentences.

Section 2 Suddenly I heard…

Section 3 I opened the door, and I saw…

Section 4 They said…

Section 5 So I…

Section 6 When my husband came back…

Section 7 Then we discovered that…

Section 8 So they…

After listening to the story twice, reproduce it from the third person singular.

Words:

vehicle

knocking on the door

elderly ladies

cardigan

obviously

good gracious

to go mad

to chat

red-faced

Unit 4.

Listening: Embarrassing moments. Two stories.

Task: You will hear two stories about embarrassing situations. After listening to the stories twice, answer the questions below in the written form.

Story A

Where was the speaker? Why was she there?

What time of year was it? What was the weather like?

What were other people doing?

What did the dogs do?

Story B

Where was the speaker?

Why was he there?

Who did he see?

What did she look like?

What did he decide to do?

Was she his friend?

Words:

to walk a dog

to creep up

blonde

to tug one’s hair

knickers

to be pleased at

middle-aged

Topic of the report for the next listening: Reasons of global warming and its consequences.

Unit 5.

Topic of the report: Reasons of global warming and its consequences.

Listening:FC, 2008: Test 1, Paper 4, Part 1.

Task:You will hear people talking in four different situations twice. For questions 1-4, choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. You overhear a woman recommending a campsite.

Why does she recommend it?

A It’s close to tourist attractions.

B Its’ in an area of natural beauty.

C It has a wide range of facilities.

2. You overhear two friends talking about global warming.

How does the girl feel about it?

A pessimistic about the future

B surprised at the effects it’s having

C unconvinced that there’s a problem

3. You overhear a young couple talking about moving to the country.

Why does the man object to the idea?

A He wouldn’t be able to work there.

B He’d miss the facilities of the city.

C He wouldn’t be near to his friends.

4. You hear a part of a radio programme about food.

Why should listeners call the programme?

A to take part in a recipe competition

B to find out about a cookery course

C to ask questions about cooking

Words:

campsite

stunning views

wave

to surf

well-meaning friends

to drop in

award-winning books

nutritionist

canteen

survey

admin tasksTopic of the report for the next listening: Snow-kiting as a winter sport

Unit 6

Topic of the report:Snow-kiting as a winter sport

Listening:FC, 2008: Test 1, Paper 4, Part 1.

Task:You will hear people talking in 4 different situations twice. For questions 5-8, choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. You hear the beginning of a programme about college canteens.

What point is being made about them?

A The choice of food has improved.

B Students like the food on offer there.

C Teachers complain about the quality of the food.

2. You hear a young woman talking about her career.

Why did she accept a job in a bookshop?

A She needed a steady income.

B She thought it would be enjoyable.

C She hoped to improve certain skills.

3. You hear part of a programme about a clothes designer.

What does the woman like about the clothes he designs?

A They are practical.

B They are colourful.

C They are original.

4. You overhear a discussion about the sport of snow-kiting.

What does the man say about it?

A It’s easier to learn than other winter sports.

B It’s more dangerous than other winter sports.

C It requires less equipment than other winter sports.

Words:

to praise to the sky

catwalk

nursery slopes

to err

Topic of the report for the next listening: Tell about 2-3 party games you know. Answer the following:

- What do you need to play it?

- How many people do you need?

- How do you play it?

- How do you win?

Unit 7

Topic of the report:Tell about 2-3 party games you know.

Listening:Childhood.Party games.

Task:You will hear children describing the four games. After listening to the tape, complete the table below.

	Game
You all sit in a circle.	B,C
One person has to leave the room.
You choose a friend to play the game with.
You have to be as quick as you can.
You have to wait your turn.
The first person to finish is the winner.
You usually get in a terrible mess.

After the second listening reproduce the rules of the games.

Words:

thimble

dice

gloves

raw eggs

hard-boiled eggs

to crack

to get messy

roll of toilet paper

to wrap up

Topic of the report for the next listening: Shakespeare’ play Macbeth. It’s success and tragedy.

Unit 8

Topic of the report: Shakespeare’ play Macbeth. It’s success and tragedy.

Listening:Believe it or not. Macbeth.

Task:You will hear a woman talking about a superstition that is common among actors in the theater. Listen to the tape twice and answer the questions:

1. What is the superstition about?

2. How can one avoid its power?

3. How can the spells be broken? Which of these things are mentioned?

- turn round three times

- say ‘Macbeth’ backwards

- say ‘Sorry’

- knock on the door

- swear

- shrug one’s shoulders

- leave the room

- leave the theaterWhat are the reasons of the superstition according to the speakers’ opinion?

Words:

superstition

to break the spell

dressing room

in a clockwise direction

to swear

to shrug off

shield

to behead

to get stabbed

sleepwalking

Topic of the report for the next listening: Hot- air balloon trips.

Unit 9

Topic of the report:Hot-air balloon trips.

Listening:FC, 2008: Test 2, Paper 4, Part 4.

Task:You will hear an interview with Patric Shaw, who works as a pilot for a company that organises hot-air balloon trips, twice. For questions 1-7, choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. According to Patrick, what worries people most when they take a balloon trip?

A how far the wind will take them

B whether they will hit some obstacle

C what the experience of landing will be like

2. Why does Patrick recommend joining the ground crew?

A It’s the best way of learning about balloons.

B It provides some experience of flying a balloon.

C It can be a fun way of earning extra income.

3. What makes the job of the ground crew particularly difficult?

A poor communication with the pilot

B unpredictable weather conditions

C the nervousness of the passengers

4. Patrick says that all members of the ground crew must

A be physically strong.

B have good social skills.

C know their area well.

5. Patrick finds it unsatisfactory when new crew members

A fail to cooperate with each other.

B distract him with unnecessary questions.

C don’t accept the way things should be done.

6. What does Patrick say about balloon competitions?

A It is often difficult to determine who has won.

B The finishing target area is often unmarked.

C Some competitors are requesting clear rules.

7. Patrick thinks his particular skills as a pilot result from

A the way in which he was trained.

B the fact that he’s adventurous by nature.

C the amount of experience he has.

Words:

Ballooning

up-and-down movements

to be anxious about something

to bounce off

take-off

ground crew

chase vehicle

to retrieve a balloon

to get on with

licence

bush

Topic of the report for the next listening: Edible and poisonous mushrooms.

Unit 10

Topic of the report:Edible and poisonous mushrooms.

Listening:Bread and mushrooms. Edible or poisonous?

Task:You will hear someone describing the mushrooms. Listen and decide which of the mentioned mushrooms are edible and which ones are poisonous.

Having listened to the tape twice, describe each mushroom: a field mushroom, a fly agaric, a cep, a death cap.

Words:

stem

gills

field mushroom

fly agaric

drug

hallucination

delicious

cep

sponge

pores

death cap

Topic of the report for the next listening: Life of bees

Unit 11

Topic of the report:Life of bees

Listening:Bees. Life in the hive.

Task: You will hear a beekeeper talking about life in a beehive. Having listened to it twice, decide which of these sentences are true, and which are false? (Write T or F.)

1. The queen bee lays eggs. ____

2. The workers collect nectar from flowers. ____

3. The queen bee turns the nectar in to honey. ____

4. The workers look after the young bees in the hive. ____

5. Drones are female bees. ____

6. The drones’ job is to guard the hive. ____

7. The drones die at the end of the summer. ____

Words:

to hatch

nurse bees

cell

guard bees

forager bees

nectar

drone

Topic of the report for the next listening: Exploring underground caves.

Unit 12

Topic of the report:Exploring underground caves.

Listening:FC, 2008: Test 4, Paper 4, Part 1.

Task: You will hear people talking in four different situations twice. For questions 1-4, choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. You hear part of a programme about music in schools.

Why are fewer children joining school choirs?

A They are unwilling to sing in public.

B Their parents don’t encourage them to sing.

C Their teachers lack the necessary musical skills.

2. You overhear a conversation about evening classes.

Why did the girl decide to register for a photography course?

A She wanted to take better holiday snaps.

B She thought it would help her in her career.

C She needed a relaxing change from her studies.

3. You overhear two people talking about a new café.

What did they both approve of?

A the size of the portions

B the originality of the food

C the efficiency of the service

4. You hear a man talking about exploring underground caves.

What is he?

A an experienced caver

B a journalist

C a student

Words:

choir

involve

decline

adolescence

digital photography

to overload

to be entrusted

reckon

baguettes

escape

outer space

unappealing

pastime

challenge

Topic of the report for the next listening: How to behave during a job interview.

Unit 13

Topic of the report:How to behave during a job interview.

Listening:FC, 2008: Test 4, Paper 4, Part 1.

Task: You will hear people talking in four different situations twice. For questions 1-4, choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. You overhear a woman talking about a job interview she had.

What does she say about it?

A Some of the questions were unfair.

B She felt she was insufficiently prepared.

C The interviewers put her under pressure.

2. You overhear a woman talking about a language course.

What does she criticize about it?

A There are too many students.

B Grammar isn’t focused on.

C It isn’t challenging enough.

3. On the radio, you hear a man talking about food.

What does he do?

A He’s a shop owner.

B He’s a cookery writer.

C He’s a chef in a restaurant.

4. You hear a man talking about moving house.

How did he feel after moving to a new area?

A worried that he wouldn’t see his old friends

B concerned about how his children would adapt

C surprised by how welcoming his new neighbours were

Words:

to put at ease

achievements

to gain

fluent

pace

to be tempted

to bother

bunch of something

Topic of the report for the next listening: What does it mean to be a ceramicist.

Unit 14

Topic of the report:What does it mean to be a ceramicist?

Listening:FC, 2008: Test 5, Paper 4, Part 4.

Task: You will hear an interview with a man called David Shaw, who is a professional ceramicist, making pottery objects out of clay. For questions 1-7, choose the best answer (A, B or C).

1. What does David say is an absolute requirement for people considering a career in ceramics?

A They must feel a passion for it.

B They must be physically very fit.

C They must have enough patience.

2. David says it took him a long time to

A develop his own style.

B make his business profitable.

C decide to work at ceramics full-time.

3. What does David find most enjoyable about his job?

A the fact that the results are unpredictable

B the feedback he gets from his customers

C the knowledge that he creates useful pieces