Compound predicate

Modal verbs are defective verbs since they lack many forms
characteristic of regular verbs: they have no -s in the third per-
son singular in the present tense and no verbals, so they have no
analytical forms; some of them lack the form of the past tense.

Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:

1) they are followed by the infinitive withoutthe particle to
(with the exception of ought, to have and to be);

2) their interrogative and negative forms are built up without
the auxiliary do.

Most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning. Each of
their meanings is characterized by a specific usage.

1) Some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentenc-
es; others occur only in affirmative or interrogative or negative
sentences;

2) Different meanings may be associated with different forms
of the infinitive — simple and perfect (both in the active and pas-
sive forms), continuous and perfect continuous;

3) If the modal verbs have more than one form (can — could-,
may — might, will — would, also the verbs to have and to be),
their different meanings are not necessarily found in all those
forms.

The use of modal verbs is in most cases independent of the
structure of the sentence: the use of this or that modal verb is de-
termined by the attitude of the speaker towards the facts con-
tained in the sentence. In this case we may speak of the free or in-
dependent use of modal verbs.

e.g. He admires you. He thinks you're a little beauty. Perhaps I

oughtn't to have toldyou that.
He may bein the hall now, waiting for me.

But sometimes the use of certain modal verbs depends on the
structure of the sentence, mainly on the type of the subordinate
clause, and occasionally also on the lexical character of the predi-
cate verb in the principal clause. This may be called the structural-
ly dependent use of modal verbs.

e.g. Itis obviously necessary that an investigation should be

made.
Christine feared she might not be metat all.

As the difference between the active and the passive forms of the infinitive is of
no consequence for the meaning of the modal verb, there is no need to illustrate these
forms separately. However, instances where the differentiation between the active
and the passive infinitive is important, are dealt with specialty.

When the use of modal verbs is structurally dependent, their
meaning is sometimes weakened; in fact, it may be quite vague.
This may be accounted for by the fact that these verbs become
rather part of the structure than bearers of individual meaning.

It is important to take into account one more feature peculiar
to modal verbs. They all show that a certain action is represented
as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, etc. from the pointof
view of the speaker.Consequently, modal verbs are generally used
in conversation, In past-time contexts they may be found only in
reported speech or thought. Thus You should have done it before,
or He might be wrong, or It must be true cannot be possibly found
in narration unless they are used after He thought that... . He
said that... . He knew that..., etc.

The only exceptions are the past tense forms could, would,
had, was and might which may be used not only in conversation
but also in narration.

e.g. Walker was illiterate and could notsign his name.

When I looked at her I saw tears in her eyes. So I had totell
her the truth.

Can

§ 76. The modal verb can has the following forms: can —the
present tense (e.g. He can speak English) and could —the past
tense. The form could is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts
as a form of the Indicative Mood (e.g. He could speak English
when he was a child), b) in present-time contexts to express unre
ality, or as a milder and more polite form of can, or as a form
implying more uncertainty than can (e.g. He could speak English
if necessary. Could I help you? Could it be true?) Compare with
the Russian мог бы: Он мог бы сделать это, если бы у него
было время (unreality). He мог бы я вам помочь? (politeness) He
ужели он мог бы так сказать"! (uncertainty).

§ 77. Can has the following meanings:
1) ability, capability,

e.g. I can imaginehow angry he is.
He can reada little French.

This meaning may also be expressed by to be able.The phrase
can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.

In the meaning of ability and capability can occurs in all kinds
of sentences.

e.g. She can playa few simple tunes on the piano.
Canyou writewith your left hand?
I cannot (can't) promiseyou anything.

In this case can is followed by the simple infinitive (see the ex-
amples above) and reference is made to the present. But depending
on the context it may also refer to the future.

e.g. We can discuss your paper after lunch.

However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or
if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future,
shall/will be ableis used.

e.g. He will be able to writeto us from Portugal.
I shall be able to earnmy own living soon.

The form could may be used in past-time contexts and in this
case it is followed by a simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indica-
tive Mood here.

e.g. He could reada great deal during the holidays.
Couldthe boy readbefore he went to school?
After what had happened I couldn't trusthim.

The form could may also be used in present-time contexts in
combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with
reference to the present or future.

e.g. "I don't want my daughter to be a typist." "Why not? She could

besecretary to some interesting man." (могла бы быть)
You could articulatemore distinctly with that cigarette out
of your mouth, (мог бы говорить более отчетливо)

As the form could may be used in two ways (see § 76) it is
Usually understood as expressing unreality with reference to the
present or future unless there are indications of past time in the
sentence or in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint
landscapes will be understood as Она могла бы писать пейзажи.

If there is no indication of past time in the context but the speak
er wishes to refer the action to the past, was/were able is used in-
steadof could to avoid ambiguity.

e.g. She was able to explainthe mystery.

In combination with the perfect infinitive could indicates that
the action was not carried out in the past.

e.g. She could have explainedthe mystery. Она могла бы объяс-
нить эту тайну, (но не объяснила)

2) possibility due to circumstances,

e.g. You can seethe forest through the other window.

We can useeither the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect
Continuous in this sentence.

In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is fol-
lowed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the
present or future.

e.g. You can obtaina dog from the Dogs' Home at Battersea.
Canwe use the indefinite article with this noun?
We can'tuse the indefinite article with this noun.

In past-time contexts the form could is used. It is followed by
the simple infinitive in this case.

e.g. You couldsee the forest through the other window before the
new block of houses was erected.

The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may
also express unreality with reference to the present or future.

e.g. You couldsee the house from here if it were not so dark.

In combination with the perfect infinitive, could indicates that
the action was not carried out in the past.

e.g. You could have seenthe house from there if it had not been
so dark.

Note. When could is used with reference to the past it denotes only the ability
or possibility of performing an action but not the realization of the action. There
fore when a realized or an unrealized action is expressed, could is naturally not
used. If an action was carried out in the past, it is expressed with the help of to
manage or to succeed (the latter is used in literary style).

e.g. He managed to settle the difficulty.
He succeeded in attaining his aim.

If an action was not realized in the past it is expressed with the help of to fail,
or to manage and to succeed in the negative form.

e.g. He failed to reach the peak.

He did not manage to settle the difficulty.

Compare with the Russian: Он мог (был способен) переплыть Волгу в юно-
сти. — In his youth he could swim across the Volga.

But: Он смог переплыть Волгу а прошлом году. — Не managed to swim
across the Volga last year. Also in: Он не мог (ему не удалось) переплыть Волгу
в прошлом году. — Не failed (didn't manage) to swim across the Volga last year.

As for to be able, it may, depending on the lexical character of the infinitive
or the context, express either the ability or possibility of performing an action or
the realization of that action.

e.g. He was able to speak English well. (Он мог/умел хорошо говорить по-англий-

ски.)

Не was able to get the book from the library. (Он смог достать книгу в биб-
лиотеке.)