The Republic of Belarus Today: General Outlook
A. Pre-Reading Activities
TaskI. Study the vocabulary notes that will help you to understand the text better:
accountable (adj) – обязанный отчитываться, ответственный, подотчетный
adopt (v) – принимать
advocate (v) – поддерживать, защищать
ally (n) – союзник, сторонник
anthem (n) – гимн
appoint (v) – назначать
approximately (adv) – приблизительно
ascendancy (n) – власть, влияние, господство
at the expense – засчет
auspicious (adj) – благоприятный
ballot (n) – голосование
bicameral (adj) – двухпалатный
bilateral (adj) – двусторонний
bill (n) – законопроект
birch (adj) – березовый
chamber (n) – палата
checksandbalances – «сдержкиипротивовесы»
collapse (n) – крушение, крах
Commander-in-Chief (n) – главнокомандующий
comprise (v) – содержать, включать, заключать в себе
confine (n) – граница, предел
coniferous (adj) – хвойный
consent (n) – согласие
constitute (v) – составлять
constitutionalamendment – поправка к конституции
continuity (n) – непрерывность, неразрывность, целостность
contribute (v) – вносить вклад, содействовать, способствовать
currently (adv) – теперь, в настоящее время
declare (v) – провозглашать
devastate (v) – опустошать, разорять
domesticpolicy – внутренняя политика
elect (v) – избирать (голосованием)
electoralsuffrage – избирательное право
enactadecree – издать указ
ensure (v) – обеспечивать, гарантировать
entire (adj) – целый, весь
espouse (v) – поддерживать (идею)
execute (v) – осуществлять, выполнять
executive (n) – исполнительная власть
exerciseauthority – осуществлять правление
foreignpolicy – внешняя политика
forest nature reserve – пуща
fragrant (adj) – ароматный, благоухающий
fulfilment (n) – выполнение, исполнение
gainrecognition – получить признание
guideline (n) – общий курс, направление, генеральная линия
habitation (n) – проживание
heritage (n) – наследство, наследие
humantrafficking – торговля людьми
impeachmenttrial – процедура импичмента
implementation (n) – исполнение, осуществление, реализация
inaframework – в рамках, в пределах
integrity (n) – целостность
intermediation (n) – посредничество
internal (adj) – внутренний
judicial (adj) – судебный
judiciary(n) – судебная власть
landlocked (adj) – не имеющий выхода к морю
legacy (n) – наследство, наследие
legalandphysicalpersons – юридические и физические лица
legislative (adj) – законодательный
legislature(n) – законодательная власть
maintain (v) – поддерживать, сохранять
marshy (adj) – болотистый
moderately (adv) – умеренно
negotiate (v) – вести переговоры
personify (v) – олицетворять
prevention (n) – предотвращение
pursueapolicy – проводить политику
respectively (adv) – соответственно
revival (n) – возрождение
significant (adj) – значительный, важный, существенный
statebody – государственный орган
supervision (n) – управление, контроль, наблюдение
termofoffice – срок полномочий
thoroughfare (n) – транспортная магистраль
tract (n) – полоса, участок
urbanarea – городская территория
vote of confidence – вотумдоверия
Task II. Mind the following proper nouns:
CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) – СНГ, СодружествоНезависимыхГосударств
CollectiveSecurityTreatyOrganisation – Организациядоговораоколлективнойбезопасности
Council of the Republic – СоветРеспублики
EurasianEconomicCommunity – Евразийское экономическое сообщество
General Public Prosecutor – Генеральныйпрокурор
House of Representatives – Палатапредставителей
International Monetary Fund – Международныйвалютныйфонд
NationalAssembly – Национальное Собрание
Non-AlignedMovement – Движение неприсоединения
OrganisationforSecurityandCooperationinEurope – Организация по безопасности и сотрудничеству в Европе
StateControlCommittee – Комитет государственного контроля
SupremeCourt – Верховный суд
UnitedNationsOrganisation – Организация Объединенных Наций
WorldBank – Всемирныйбанк
B. Reading and Comprehension Activities
Task III. Go through the text and check your understanding by doing the tasks that follow:
Belarus is an ancient Slavonic country situated in the centre of Europe. The territory of the Republic of Belarus covers 207,600 square kilometres, stretching 650 kilometres from west to east and 560 kilometres from north to south and bordering on Russia in the north-east and east, on Ukraine in the south, on Poland in the west and on Lithuania and Latvia in the north-west. The most important cities are Minsk, the capital, Brest, Grodno, Gomel, Mogilev and Vitebsk. They are not only administrative, but also industrial and cultural centres of the six territorial regions of Belarus.
The country is populated by approximately 10 million people. Ethnic Belarusians constitute 81.2% of the total population. The next largest ethnic groups are the Russians (11.4%), the Poles (3.9%), and the Ukrainians (2.4%). Belarus’ two official languages are Belarusian and Russian, spoken at home by 36.7% and 62.8% of the Belarusians, respectively. More than 70% of Belarus’ population resides in the urban areas surrounding Minsk and other regional centres.
Belarus is landlocked, relatively flat and contains large tracts of marshy land. The country is rich in water resources. There are more than 10,000 lakes in Belarus and the river network comprises about 20,800 rivers and streams. The longest rivers are the Dnieper, the Western Dvina, the Nieman, the Bug and the Prypyat. The biggest lake is Naroch. Almost a third of the country is a coniferous and birch forestland. Due to a great number of lakes and forests the Belarusian people call their country ‘blue-eyed’ or ‘a country of blue lakes and green forests’. The endless woodlands, deep rivers and lakes, vast fields and meadows of fragrant grass have always been an enjoyable sight for residents and visitors. Belarus possesses such valuable natural complexes as the national parks Belavezhskaya Forest Nature Reserve and BraslavLakes, Nalibokskaya Forest Nature Reserve, Berezina reserve, the lakes Naroch, Svityaz and others. The plane character of the territory, the moderately continental climate, the developed hydrographic system and the forest reserves create auspicious conditions for habitation of people, managing agriculture, building industrial enterprises and thoroughfares.
The country’s advantageous geographical position at the crossing of roads going from east to west and from north to south often turned into a disadvantage. Belarus was the arena of many wars, invasions and aggressions. The territory and its nation were especially devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. But the republic managed to recover in the post-war years – it restored its cities and rebuilt its economy.
The Parliament of the Republic of Belarus declared the sovereignty of the country on 27 July 1990, and following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared its independence on 25 August 1991. According to the Constitution, adopted in March 1994, the Republic of Belarus is a unitary democratic social state based on the rule of law, which exercises supreme control and absolute authority over its entire territory, and pursues an independent internal and foreign policy. Currently the Republic of Belarus is a sovereign independent state with its own government, constitution, state emblem, flag and anthem. The national anthem of the Republic of Belarusis “We, Belarusians”.
The politics of Belarus takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Belarus is the Head of State, the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, the guarantor of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, the rights and liberties of man and citizen. The President personifies the unity of the nation, the implementation of the main guidelines of the domestic and foreign policy, represents the State in the relations with other states and international organizations. The President provides the protection of the sovereignty of the Republic of Belarus, its national security and territorial integrity, ensures its political and economic stability, continuity and interaction of bodies of state power, maintains the intermediation among the bodies of state power. Under the Constitution, the President is elected directly by the people of the Republic of Belarus for a term of office of five years by universal, free, equal, direct electoral suffrage and by secret ballot.
State power in the Republic is exercised on the principle of division of powers between the legislature, executive and judiciary. State bodies, within the confines of their powers, are independent: they co-operate among themselves acting on the principle of checks and balances.
The country’s supreme legislative authority is the National Assembly, however the President may enact decrees that are executed the same way as laws. The National Assembly is a bicameral Parliament comprising the 110-seat House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-seat Council of the Republic (the upper house). The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the Prime Minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the Prime Minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the President, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution of Belarus.
Executive power in the Republic of Belarus is exercised by the Government – the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus – the central body of state administration. The Government in its activity is accountable to the President and responsible to Parliament. The head of the Council is the Prime Minister, appointed by the President with the consent of the House of Representatives. The Prime Minister manages the activities of the Government and informs the President on its basic guidelines and on all the most important decisions.
The judicial power in the Republic is performed by the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. Supervision of the exact and uniform execution of laws by all bodies of state management, local councils and other legal and physical persons is carried out by the General Public Prosecutor of the Republic of Belarus.
Control over the fulfilment of the republican budget, the utilization of state property, the execution of parliamentary acts, regulating the relations with state property, economic, financial and tax relations, is carried out by the State Control Committee.
The first political party in independent Belarus other than the communist party was the United Democratic Party of Belarus founded in 1990. It seeks an independent Belarus, democracy, freedom of ethnic expression, and a market economy. The Belarusian Social Democratic Assembly advocates an independent Belarus, which does not rule out membership in the CIS, and a market economy with state regulation of certain sectors. The Belarusian Peasant Party’s goals involve privatization of land, a free market, a democratic government, and support of Belarusian culture and humanism. The Belarusian Christian Democratic Union espouses Christian values, non-violence, pluralism, private property, and peaceful relations among ethnic groups. Other parties include the Communist Party of Belarus, the National Democratic Party of Belarus, the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus, the All-Belarusian Party of Popular Unity and Accord, the Republican Party of Labour and Justice, the Agrarian Party of Belarus, the Belarusian Ecological Party, etc. All in all in 2008 there were 15 officially registered political parties in Belarus.
The Republic of Belarus has significant scientific and technical potential, aimed at solving major social and economic problems, fundamental research and development. The opening of the BelarusianStateUniversity in 1921 became an important step in the development of Belarusian science. In 1929 the Academy of Sciences of Belarus was founded. The achievements of Belarusian scientists in the fields of mathematics, physics, nuclear power, chemistry, biology, microelectronics, computer science, in agriculture, ecology and environmental protection have gained international recognition. The financial backing of fundamental and applied research is achieved both at the expense of budget subsidies, and also on a contractual basis.
Belarus possesses a rich folklore and a legacy of literature, art and architecture from the Kievan and Lithuanian periods. The period from the 16th to the 18th century is considered the golden age of Belarusian culture. The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of Polish and Russian cultural ascendancy. The revival of Belarusian culture began only in the late 1980s. At present the Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country. The Belarusian Government sponsors various cultural festivals like the Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk, which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Several state holidays, for example, Victory Day and Independence Day, draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades.
Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the break-up of the Soviet Union. Since 1996, Belarus has been negotiating with Russia to unify into a single state called the Union of Russia and Belarus. Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states as well as with its neighbours Lithuania, Poland and Latvia. Bilateral relations with the United States are based on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking and technology crime, and disaster relief. Belarus has recently increased its cooperation with China, India, Venezuela, the United Arab Emirates, the Republic of South Africa and Syria. In addition to the CIS, Belarus has membership in the Eurasian Economic Community and the Collective Security Treaty Organisation. Belarus interacts with the major international institutions such as the United Nations Organisation, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Non-Alignment Movement, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, etc.
The Republic of Belarus owns a valuable potential of natural, architectural and ethnic resources, rich cultural and historical heritage, favourable geographical position on tourist routes connecting Western Europe, Russia, Scandinavia and Asia. International economic and cultural activity of Belarus today is becoming more and more intensive. It contributes to the world peace, friendship and cooperation among nations.
It’s interesting to know …
ü The literal translation of Belarus is ‘White Russia’, after the ancient term ‘Belaya Rus’. The ‘white’ may refer to the beauty of the birch forests or to the snow that blankets the earth every year. Another explanation is that in ancient times the word ‘white’ meant free, in the sense of free from conquering invaders.
ü Belarus was named ‘Byelorussia’ until 1991, when the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called ‘Belarus’ in Russian and in all other language transcriptions of its name.
ü Until the 20th century, the Belarusians lacked the opportunity to create a distinctive national identity, since the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth, the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.
ü Belarus is twice as small as France, Spain, Sweden. It is twice as large as Greece and Bulgaria; three times as large as Ireland and the Czech Republic; five times as large as Estonia and Denmark.
ü Belarus occupies some 2% of the territory of Europe and ranks 85th in area in the world.
ü The Belarusians account for 1.5% of the population of Europe and the country ranks 86th among the countries of the world in population.
ü On 31 May 2008 a memorial sign was put up in the city of Polotsk, Vitebsk region to mark the geographical centre of Europe.
ü The relief of the territory bears the witness of the Ice Age, namely the Valday’s Glacier, which shaped the landscape 14-18 thousand years ago.
ü For the first time Minsk was mentioned in chronicles in 1067 under the name of Mensk in connection with the battle of the Nemiga River during which it was completely destroyed. As for its original name – Mensk (the current name ‘Minsk’ was acquired only in the late 17th century as a result of transferring the lands under the power of Rzecz Pospolita), there is an interesting version of its origin. Mensk originates from the word ‘menyat’ (to change), which allows to make a conclusion about intensive trade activities there since ancient times.
ü Minsk has been the nation’s capital since 1919, and at present it is home to 1,741,400 of Belarus’ residents.
ü There are about 0.88 males per female in Belarus. The average life expectancy is 63 years for males and 74.9 years for females.
ü Belarus has a negative population growth rate. In 2007 Belarus’ population declined by 0.41% and its fertility rate was 1.22, well below the replacement rate.
ü According to Article 16 of the Constitution, Belarus has no official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Russian Orthodox. While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article, religious organisations that are deemed harmful to the government or social order of the country can be prohibited.
ü Belarus is the only nation in Europe that retains the death penalty for certain crimes during times of peace and war.
ü Belarus has four World Heritage Sites: the Mir Castle Complex, the NesvizhCastle, the Belovezhskaya Forest Nature Reserve (shared with Poland), and the Struve Geodetic Arc (shared with nine other countries).
ü The Belovezhskaya Forest Nature Reserve is home to the European bison (or wisent), a relative of the American buffalo. This creature is often depicted in prehistoric wall paintings found all over Europe. It survives only in the reserve.
ü In 1945 Belarus was one of the 50 member countries that formed the United Nations Organisation to promote peace and international cooperation and security.
ü In December 1991 Belarus was one of the three Slavic republics of the former USSR to set up the Commonwealth of Independent States with the purpose of economic, financial and monetary cooperation. The headquarters of the CIS is in Minsk.
ü Almost two thirds (61.5%) of the Belarusians do not support any political party.
Task IV. Consult a dictionary to fill in the missing parts of speech in the table below:
| Noun | Verb | Adjective |
| supervising | ||
| constitute | ||
| declaration | ||
| prevent | ||
| government | ||
| independent | ||
| preside | ||
| legislature | ||
| authorize | ||
| union |
Task V. Scan the text and find the words which correspond to these definitions. Complete the puzzle and find a key word in the centre boxes:
1. affecting or undertaken by two parties; mutual
2. to talk (with others) to achieve an agreement
3. a sudden failure or breakdown
4. the democratic practice of selecting a representative or a course of action by submitting the options to a vote of all qualified persons
5. a renewed use, acceptance of, or interest in past customs, styles, etc.
6. relating to the administration of justice
7. the system or body of fundamental principles according to which a nation or state is constituted and governed
8. to assign officially, as for a position, responsibility, etc
9. an addition, alteration, or improvement to a document
10. supreme and unrestricted power, as of a state
Task VI. Check your understanding of the text by marking these statements as True or False. Provide evidence from the text to support your answers:
1. The geographical position of Belarus is tactic, linking Western Europe with the Russian Federation.
2. More than 80% of the population is native Belarusians, with sizable minorities of the Russians, the Ukrainians and the Poles.
3. Approximately 34% of the country’s territory is forested.
4. The Republic of Belarus as a sovereign country was formed in 1990, following the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
5. A national Constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of the Prime Minister were given to the President.
6. According to the Constitution, the Republic of Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by the President and the National Assembly.
7. Alexander Lukashenko has been the President of Belarus since 1992.
8. The unicameral Parliament consists of the Council of the Republic and the House of Representatives.
9. The Council of Ministers is the legislative branch of state power, and is appointed by the President of Belarus.
10. Control over the constitutional compliance of normative acts in the country is fulfilled by the Supreme Court.
Task VII. Read the text more carefully and complete the suggested statements:
1. The Republic of Belarus is …
2. The landscape of Belarus …
3. State power is formed and realized through …
4. Executive power is exercised by …
5. Legislative power is vested in …
6. The judicial power is performed by …
7. In accordance with the Constitution, the President …
8. In Belarus there exist several political parties …
9. At present Belarus is in close cooperation with …
10. The Republic of Belarus possesses (owns, has) …
Task VIII. Read the text again and give extensive answers to the following questions:
1. What do you know about the origin of the words ‘Belarus’ and ‘Minsk’?
2. How does Belarus rank among the countries of the world in area and population?
3. Is Belarus an urban nation? Why did Belarus change from a rural nation to an urban nation?
4. Is the territory of Belarus favourable for life and economic activities? Why? Why not?
5. What losses did the country suffer during World War II?
6. Why does Belarus have two official languages?
7. What are the country’s supreme legislative, executive and judicial authorities?
8. What is the official name of the Belarusian Parliament? What chambers does it consist of?
9. Who is the country’s President at the moment? Who is the head of the Government nowadays?
10. Is it true that Belarus is a country of well-developed science, culture and education?
Task IX. Check how well you know your country by choosing the correct variant from the alternatives below:
1. What is the territory of the Republic of Belarus?
a. 207,600 km2 b. 206,700 km2 c. 208,700 km2 d. 206,800 km2
2. How many countries does Belarus border on?
a. 4 b. 5 c. 6 d. 7
3. Belarus has the longest common border with …
a. Poland b. Ukraine c. Russia d. Lithuania
4. The geographical centre of Belarus is situated in …
a. Puhovichi district c. Dzerzhinski district
b. Smolevichi district d. Molodechno district
5. The geographical centre of Europe is situated in …
a. Vitebsk b. Polotsk c. Novopolotsk d. Glubokoe
6. Which is the second largest city in Belarus in terms of its population?
a. Gomel b. Grodno c. Vitebsk d. Brest
7. Which of the combinations ‘the city – the river on which it stands’ is erroneous?
a. Minsk – the Svisloch c. Grodno – the Neman
b. Mogilev – the Sozh d. Vitebsk – the Berezina
8. Minsk’s 950th anniversary will be celebrated in …
a. 2012 b. 2022 c. 2017 d. 2027
9. The highest peak (345m) in Belarus is the hill …
a. Lisaya b. Dzerzhinskaya c. Mayak d. Zamkovaya
10. The longest river flowing within the territory of Belarus is …
a. the Berezina b. the Dnieper c. the Prypyat d. the Neman
11. The deepest lake in Belarus is …
a. the Dolgoe b. the Naroch c. the Svityaz d. the Glubokoe
12. The largest lake in Belarus is …
a. the Osveiskoe b. the Dolgoe c. the Naroch d. the Seliava
13. Which of the regions ranks first in the number of nature conservation territories?
a. Minsk b. Vitebsk c. Brest d. Grodno
14. … is called ‘Belarusian Switzerland’.
a. The Naroch District c. Polessie region
b. Braslav Lakes District d. Polotsk Lakeland
15. Choose the largest artificial water-storage reservoir on the territory of Belarus.
a. MinskSea c. Soligorsk water-storage reservoir
b. Zaslavl water-storage reservoir d. Vileika water-storage reservoir
16. The oldest national park in Belarus is …
a. Belovezhskaya Forest Nature Reserve c. Braslav national park
b. Nalibokskaya Forest Nature Reserve d. Berezina biosphere reserve
17. … was created for protection of beavers.
a. Nalibokskaya Forest Nature Reserve c. Berezina biosphere reserve
b. Belovezhskaya Forest Nature Reserve d. Braslav national park
18. How many health resorts are there in Belarus?
a. 4 b. 5 c. 3 d. 6
19. Which of these sports complexes is not a ski resort?
a. Silichi b. Logoisk c. Raubichi d. Staiki
20. Which climate is characteristic of Belarus?
a. moderately continental c. continental
b. acutely continental d. maritime
21. Which part of the country is considered to be relatively favourable in terms of ecology?
a. central b. northern c. southern d. eastern
22. More than … of Belarus’ territory is contaminated with radioactive substances.
a. 20% b. 15% c. 25% d. 30%
23. What is the state system of the Republic of Belarus?
a. a constitutional monarchy c. a federal republic
b. a parliamentary republic d. a presidential republic
24. When do the Belarusians celebrate Independence Day?
a. 15 March b. 9 May c. 3 July d. 7 November
25. According to the Constitution the President of Belarus is elected for …
a. a four-year term c. a six-year term
b. a five-year term d. a two-year term
26. Parliament is the supreme … body in Belarus.
a. legislative b. executive c. judicial d. governing
27. In Belarus there are … elected members of the House of Representatives.
a. 64 b. 110 c. 164 d. 90
28. The number of Representatives which each region sends to the House of Representatives depends …
a. on its territory c. on its population
b. on its industrial development d. on the wish of the voters
29. The country has had two official languages, Belarusian and Russian, since the referendum in …
a. 1994 b. 1995 c. 1996 d. 1992
30. What is the official religion in the Republic of Belarus?
a. Catholicism c. Protestantism
b. Orthodoxy d. there’s no official religion
Task X. Try to give an adequate translation of the following sentences:
1. Беларусь – страна с уникальной историей и богатым культурным наследием.
2. Согласно Конституции, Республика Беларусь – унитарная демократическая социально-правовая держава, которая самостоятельно осуществляет внутреннюю и внешнюю политику.
3. Минск – столица современной Беларуси, крупнейший центр экономической, культурной и социальной жизни общества.
4. По последним расчетам ученых, географический центр Европы расположен именно на территории Беларуси.
5. Избрание депутатов Палаты представителей осуществляется на основе всеобщего, равного, прямого избирательного права при тайном голосовании.
6. Беларусь находится в союзных отношениях с Россией, сотрудничает со многими международными организациями, поддерживает дипломатические и торговые связи почти с 160 странами мира.
7. Беларусь является членом ООН, СНГ, ОДКБ, ЕврАзЭС, Союзного государства России и Беларуси, МВФ и Всемирного банка.
8. Стратегической целью Республики Беларусь как европейского государства является членство в Европейском Союзе путем выполнения стандартных политических, экономических и институциональных требований.
9. Несмотря на то, что Беларусь – единственная страна в Европе, где нет ни моря, ни гор, у нее есть значительный потенциал для развития сельского туризма.
10. Туристы, посетившие Беларусь, увозят домой богатые впечатления об озере Нарочь и Беловежской пуще, о красоте Полоцкого Софийского собора, средневекового Мирского замка, многих других памятниках истории и культуры.
C. Follow-up Activities
Task XI. Share your opinions on the following:
1. What are the most typical features of the Belarusian national character?
2. Speak about the advantages and disadvantages of the geographical position of Belarus.
3. If you were a guide, what places of interest in Belarus would you show the tourists? Which of them can give a visitor a good idea of the historic past of the country?
4. If you were asked to send one thing representing your country to an international exhibition, what would you choose? Why?
5. What future would you forecast for the Republic of Belarus?
D. Optional Reading
A Brief History of Belarus
The region that is now modern-day Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. East-Slavic tribes of Krivichi, Dregovichi and Radimichi were the Belarusian people’s ancestors. They settled around the Polota (a Western Dvina tributary) and were later named Polotchane. By the 8th to 9th century they had formed several state formations, such as the Principalities of Pinsk, Turov, Polotsk, Slutsk and Minsk. In the mid-9th century they all came under the suzerainty of Kievan Rus, the first EastSlavicState. During the 10th-12th centuries some of the major principalities actually became independent and were being ruled by local dynasties.
From the middle of the 13th century the Belarusian lands belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1386 the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers. This union eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth (Rzecz Pospolita), created in 1569. The state system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the end of the 16th century up to the 18th century was an early form of the bourgeois (the szlachta) democracy, the first step to the civil society. The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795, and the Commonwealth was partitioned by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In the days of Imperial Russia Belarus was named Byelorussia, and the Russian tsar was usually styled Tsar of All the Russias – Great, Little, and White. After its incorporation into the Russian Empire, Byelorussia lost its status as a state. The change found reflection in its official name: from 1840 it was named ‘the North-Western Lands’.
During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Byelorussia first declared independence on 25 March 1918, forming the Byelorussian People’s Republic, a national bourgeois-democratic state. It failed, however, to turn into a fully-fledged state: it had no Constitution, no state boundaries, it had no armed forces of its own, the financial system and other attributes of statehood were not formed either. Soon afterwards, the BPR fell under the influence of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army and became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. On the 1 January 1919, the ByelorussianSovietSocialisticRepublic (the BSSR) was formed, in which political and economic life was under control of the central authority. Non-communist parties and organisations were banned, and the administrative functions were performed by the party machinery. After Russian occupation of eastern and northern Lithuania, it was merged into the Lithuanian-ByelorussianSovietSocialistRepublic. The Byelorussian lands were then split between Poland and the Soviets after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, and the recreated Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. The final unification of the Byelorussian lands within its modern borders took place in 1939, when the ethnically Byelorussian lands that were part of interwar Poland were annexed by the USSR and attached to the Soviet Byelorussia.
Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Byelorussia was the hardest hit SovietRepublic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed most of the cities in the republic, 85% of the republic’s industry, and more than one million buildings, while causing human losses estimated between two and three million. After the war ended in 1945, Byelorussia was among the founding countries of the United Nations Charter and began rebuilding the SovietRepublic. During this time, Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietisation to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences. The official use of the Byelorussian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, his successor Nikita Khrushchev continued that program. When the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev began pushing through his reform plan, the Byelorussian people delivered a petition to him in December 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. Since then the revival of Byelorussian culture has began.
On the disintegration of the USSR, on 27 July 1990, Byelorussia proclaimed its sovereignty by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the ByelorussianSovietSocialistRepublic. Political change in Byelorussia came about only after the August 1991 coup d’état in Moscow. Following the coup’s collapse and declarations of independence by Estonia, Latvia, and Ukraine, Byelorussia declared its own independence on 25 August by giving its Declaration of Sovereignty the status of a constitutional document. In September 1991, pressed by the small but vocal democratic opposition, the Parliament changed the state’s name from the ByelorussianSovietSocialistRepublic to the Republic of Belarus. On 8 December, Belarus joined Russia and Ukraine in signing the Minsk Agreement to form the Commonwealth of Independent States, which formally put an end to the Soviet Union. On 21 December, Belarus signed the Alma Ata Declaration, which expanded the CIS membership from the original three signatories of the Minsk Agreement to eleven states.
The national Constitution went into effect in March 1994, in which the functions of the Prime Minister were given to the President. Two-round elections for the presidency in June and July 1994 resulted in Alexander Lukashenko becoming the President of the Republic of Belarus. The four-question referendum was held on 15 May 1995. The populace voted ‘yes’ on all four questions: Russian as an official language, the return of a Soviet-era red and green flag, economic integration with Russia, and presidential power to dissolve the Supreme Soviet. A. Lukashenko was re-elected President in 2001 and in 2006.
The long history taught the Belarusians to overcome difficulties. Today they are optimistic because their historical experience makes them sure they will do their best to preserve their unique culture, language and revive industry and agriculture.