Т. в. митрошкина, а. и. савинова
Т. В. МИТРОШКИНА, А. И. САВИНОВА
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES:
BELARUS, RUSSIA, GREAT BRITAIN, USA
СТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ:
БЕЛАРУСЬ, РОССИЯ, ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИЯ, США
Минск
Авторы
преподаватель кафедры теории и практики английской речи Белорусского государственного экономического университета
Т. В. Митрошкина
преподаватель кафедры теории и практики английской речи Белорусского государственного экономического университета
А. И. Савинова
Рецензенты:
Кафедра теории и практики английской речи Минского государственного лингвистического университета;
старший преподаватель кафедры теории и практики английской речи Белорусского государственного экономического университета Родион С.К.;
кандидат педагогических наук, доцент, зам. заведующего кафедрой иностранных языков
Института управленческих кадров Академии управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь
С. М. Володько
Митрошкина, Т. В., Савинова. А. И.
Cross-CulturalStudies: Belarus, Russia, GreatBritain, USA = Страноведение: Беларусь, Россия, Великобритания, США / Т. В. Митрошкина, А. И. Савинова. – Минск: ТетраСистемс, 2016. – … c.
Пособие включает в себя тексты для чтения и упражнения к ним, направленные на осуществление контроля усвоения новой лексики и фактического материала, развитие навыков устной монологической речи, а также на развитие умений анализировать и сопоставлять аналогичные явления в рамках культуры, общественно-политической жизни и экономики Беларуси, России, Великобритании и США.
Предназначено для студентов и преподавателей высших учебных заведений экономического профиля, а также для широкого круга лиц, изучающих и преподающих английский язык.
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ.. 3
ВВЕДЕНИЕ.. 4
Unit 1. THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS. 5
The Republic of Belarus Today: General Outlook. 5
Higher Education in the Republic of Belarus. 16
The Economy of the Republic of Belarus. 24
Unit 2. THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION.. 36
The Russian Federation Today: General Outlook. 36
Higher Education in the Russian Federation. 46
The Economy of the Russian Federation. 54
Unit 3. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND.. 63
The United Kingdom Today: General Outlook. 63
Higher Education in the United Kingdom.. 73
The Economy of the United Kingdom.. 81
Unit 4. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.. 92
The United States of America Today: General Outlook. 92
Higher Education in the United States of America. 104
The Economy of the United States of America. 112
ОТВЕТЫ... 126
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ... 147
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
«Cross-CulturalStudies: Belarus, Russia, GreatBritain, USA» – это учебно-методическое пособие, адресованное студентам и преподавателям высших учебных заведений экономического профиля, а также широкому кругу лиц, изучающих и преподающих английский язык.
Пособие предназначено для использования на занятиях по английскому языку и дает учащимся возможность провести сравнительный анализ некоторых страноведческих реалий, фактов общественно-политической жизни, системы высшего образования, а также современного экономического состояния Республики Беларусь, Российской Федерации и двух из наиболее развитых англоговорящих стран мира – Соединенного Королевства Великобритании и Северной Ирландии и Соединенных Штатов Америки.
Основной целью курса является формирование у студентов точных, систематических, отвечающих современным требованиям знаний о географии, особенностях исторического развития, политического строя и последних тенденциях развития экономики указанных стран.
Дидактическими задачами данного пособия являются совершенствование навыков различных видов чтения, развитие и совершенствование умений и навыков устной речи, умений вести беседу и выражать собственное мнение, формирование навыков общения в ролевой игре, а также закрепление и активизация лексического материала по изучаемым темам.
Представленныйвпособииматериалструктурнораспределенпочетыремразделам: “The Republic of Belarus”, “The Russian Federation”, “The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland”, “The United States of America”. Каждый раздел включает три основных текста для изучающего чтения, рассматривающие упомянутые страны с точки зрения их истории, географии, общественно-политической жизни (“GeneralOutlook”), системы высшего образования (“HigherEducation”), а также их современного экономического развития, положения в мировом хозяйстве, международных экономических отношений (“Economy”).
Проработка каждого из подразделов сборника предполагает несколько этапов: предтекстовый, текстовый и послетекстовый. Центром раздела является текст, предваряемый системой предтекстовых упражнений, а также списком слов, подлежащих активизации. Дополнительную информацию по теме можно найти в рубрике “It’sinterestingtoknow”. За текстом следуют задания, направленные на контроль понимания прочитанного и ведение дискуссии по содержанию текста. В конце каждой тематически обозначенной части – задания проблемного характера, направленные на развитие неподготовленной речи студентов и способствующие проявлению их творческих способностей. Кроме того, каждый раздел включает тексты для дополнительного чтения (“OptionalReading”). Последовательное выполнение упражнений и заданий каждого этапа позволит учащимся сформировать навыки и умения в различных видах речевой деятельности.
Задания и упражнения имеют ключи, что позволяет использовать пособие как для аудиторной, так и для самостоятельной работы.
Предлагаемые в пособии тексты отличаются высокой актуальностью, что укрепит уверенность учащихся в необходимости их освоения и даст новый стимул к углублению знаний по английскому языку.
A Brief History of Belarus
The region that is now modern-day Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. East-Slavic tribes of Krivichi, Dregovichi and Radimichi were the Belarusian people’s ancestors. They settled around the Polota (a Western Dvina tributary) and were later named Polotchane. By the 8th to 9th century they had formed several state formations, such as the Principalities of Pinsk, Turov, Polotsk, Slutsk and Minsk. In the mid-9th century they all came under the suzerainty of Kievan Rus, the first EastSlavicState. During the 10th-12th centuries some of the major principalities actually became independent and were being ruled by local dynasties.
From the middle of the 13th century the Belarusian lands belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1386 the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers. This union eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth (Rzecz Pospolita), created in 1569. The state system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the end of the 16th century up to the 18th century was an early form of the bourgeois (the szlachta) democracy, the first step to the civil society. The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795, and the Commonwealth was partitioned by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In the days of Imperial Russia Belarus was named Byelorussia, and the Russian tsar was usually styled Tsar of All the Russias – Great, Little, and White. After its incorporation into the Russian Empire, Byelorussia lost its status as a state. The change found reflection in its official name: from 1840 it was named ‘the North-Western Lands’.
During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Byelorussia first declared independence on 25 March 1918, forming the Byelorussian People’s Republic, a national bourgeois-democratic state. It failed, however, to turn into a fully-fledged state: it had no Constitution, no state boundaries, it had no armed forces of its own, the financial system and other attributes of statehood were not formed either. Soon afterwards, the BPR fell under the influence of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army and became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. On the 1 January 1919, the ByelorussianSovietSocialisticRepublic (the BSSR) was formed, in which political and economic life was under control of the central authority. Non-communist parties and organisations were banned, and the administrative functions were performed by the party machinery. After Russian occupation of eastern and northern Lithuania, it was merged into the Lithuanian-ByelorussianSovietSocialistRepublic. The Byelorussian lands were then split between Poland and the Soviets after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, and the recreated Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. The final unification of the Byelorussian lands within its modern borders took place in 1939, when the ethnically Byelorussian lands that were part of interwar Poland were annexed by the USSR and attached to the Soviet Byelorussia.
Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Byelorussia was the hardest hit SovietRepublic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed most of the cities in the republic, 85% of the republic’s industry, and more than one million buildings, while causing human losses estimated between two and three million. After the war ended in 1945, Byelorussia was among the founding countries of the United Nations Charter and began rebuilding the SovietRepublic. During this time, Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietisation to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences. The official use of the Byelorussian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, his successor Nikita Khrushchev continued that program. When the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev began pushing through his reform plan, the Byelorussian people delivered a petition to him in December 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. Since then the revival of Byelorussian culture has began.
On the disintegration of the USSR, on 27 July 1990, Byelorussia proclaimed its sovereignty by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the ByelorussianSovietSocialistRepublic. Political change in Byelorussia came about only after the August 1991 coup d’état in Moscow. Following the coup’s collapse and declarations of independence by Estonia, Latvia, and Ukraine, Byelorussia declared its own independence on 25 August by giving its Declaration of Sovereignty the status of a constitutional document. In September 1991, pressed by the small but vocal democratic opposition, the Parliament changed the state’s name from the ByelorussianSovietSocialistRepublic to the Republic of Belarus. On 8 December, Belarus joined Russia and Ukraine in signing the Minsk Agreement to form the Commonwealth of Independent States, which formally put an end to the Soviet Union. On 21 December, Belarus signed the Alma Ata Declaration, which expanded the CIS membership from the original three signatories of the Minsk Agreement to eleven states.
The national Constitution went into effect in March 1994, in which the functions of the Prime Minister were given to the President. Two-round elections for the presidency in June and July 1994 resulted in Alexander Lukashenko becoming the President of the Republic of Belarus. The four-question referendum was held on 15 May 1995. The populace voted ‘yes’ on all four questions: Russian as an official language, the return of a Soviet-era red and green flag, economic integration with Russia, and presidential power to dissolve the Supreme Soviet. A. Lukashenko was re-elected President in 2001 and in 2006.
The long history taught the Belarusians to overcome difficulties. Today they are optimistic because their historical experience makes them sure they will do their best to preserve their unique culture, language and revive industry and agriculture.
Sectors of Economy
Mechanical engineering and metalworking are the leading industries. Supplying a quarter of the mechanical engineering output, automobile production is the largest branch of the national mechanical engineering industry. Minsk Automobile Plant (MAZ trademark) and Belarusian Autoworks (BelAZ trademark, the town of Zhodino) are the key companies.
The national tractor and agricultural machinery engineering can almost fully satisfy the need of the Belarusian agribusiness for the necessary machines and equipment. The industry comprises over 40 companies specialized in designing and manufacturing tractors and agricultural machines. Minsk Tractor Works (MTZ trademark) is one of the world’s eight largest tractor producers, which accounts for 96% of the international tractor sales. MTZ exports the make to more than 60 countries.
Belarus also produces building, road construction machines and machines for municipal services, equipment for trading and public catering companies, household appliances.
Belarusian mechanical engineering companies offer a wide range of sophisticated consumer goods such as TV sets, refrigerators, washing machines, and others. TV sets made by Horizont and Vityas as well as refrigerators Atlant are known far abroad. The industrial potential of sophisticated mechanical engineering industries is represented as well by instrument making industry, electrotechnical industry, radio technical, electronic, optical mechanical industries.
Chemical and petrochemical industry is one of the largest branches of the Belarusian economy. Belarus is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of potash fertilizers.
The national fuel and energy industry extracts, transports, stores and distributes all kinds of energy resources: natural gas, oil and petroleum products, solid fuel, electric and heating energy. Belarus has proprietary small oil reserves and is reliant on oil and gas supplies from Russia. The Druzhba oil pipeline is a major transit corridor used to transport Russian oil and is a continuation of the system of trunk oil pipelines of Russian company Transneft. Beltransgaz distributes and transports natural gas across Belarus. The company also serves the Belarusian section of the transcontinental gas pipeline Yamal-Europe owned by Russia. Belarusian specialists also started working for a Belarusian-Venezuelian prospecting seismology joint venture SeismoVenBel. In 2007 the sides started setting up a joint venture for extracting oil in Venezuela.
The core of construction industry is made up by the companies producing construction materials as well as glass and faience, forestry and woodworking, mechanical engineering and metalworking enterprises. The Belarusian companies produce materials and articles to erect buildings meeting all European durability and design standards.
The forest sector in Belarus has a significant impact on the economy. The country has become a significant roundwood exporter to the Baltic countries and to Europe, providing low-cost raw materials for their industries.
Light industry unites more than 10 branches. In terms of production volume, textiles companies take the leading position in the structure of this industry. They manufacture all types of fabrics and knitwear. The second most important industry sector is the sewing industry which unites more than 250 companies.
The agricultural sector is an important branch of economy and the principal component of the agro-industrial sector of Belarusian industry. Enterprises of various forms of ownership specialize in production of agricultural goods: agricultural companies, farms, household plots, etc. Although large farms, formerly collectives, have been preserved in Belarus, there are over 2,000 private farms. Large farms produce 53% of the nation’s agricultural output.
The Belarusian agribusiness sector includes such subsectors as farming industry (crop and animal husbandry), processing industry (food processing, primary flax processing), service sphere (land management, construction, trade and other services). The agrarian sector is divided into cattle breeding and plant growing. Cattle-breeding companies produce more than half of the total livestock output. One of the most rapidly developing industry sectors is poultry farming.
There are 89,800 square kilometres of farmland in Belarus including 55,400 square kilometresof arable land. But a short growing season and a lack of fertile soil make farming difficult. Four fifths of arable land is constituted by acid soil which needs constant improvement. Besides, the 1986 explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in Ukraine contaminated much of the soil in southern Belarus, reducing the country’s total area of arable land by more than 10%.
Grain farming companies mainly produce barley, rye, oats, winter and spring wheat. Belarus is one of the seven world leading potato producers and tops the list of the countries in terms of potato production per capita. The country has about 16% of the world area under flax. The climatic conditions in Belarus are favourable for sugar beet cultivation. The country can completely satisfy the domestic demand for sugar. More than 1,000 agricultural companies and about 3 million private households and farms grow vegetables.
The processing branch stands second in terms of output in the structure of Belarus’ agricultural industry. One of the most important components is food industry, which is divided into 20 sectors. Meat and milk branches take the leading positions in the structure of the industry, which also unites bread-making, sugar, confectionary, wine-making and fish sectors.
Belarus can completely satisfy the needs of the population for meat and milk products. But the country has to import vegetable oil, fish and fish products, vegetables and fruit to meet the domestic demand.
Service system is developed in Belarus unevenly. Infrastructure and services are more developed in the big cities of the Republic. In the year of 2008 this sector of economy generated 42-43% of the total GDP.
Belarus’ favourable geographical position helps to build up high transit potential of the country’s transport communications. Transport infrastructure of Belarus is well integrated into similar infrastructures of the CIS countries. It includes a fairly developed network of automobile, rail, air and pipe communications.
The automobile public transport in Belarus is well developed and plays a great role in passenger transportation. Public railways in Belarus make 5,500 kilometres including 900 kilometres electrified. The railroad and the railroad transport are monopolized by the state. Belarus is at the crossroads of air routes from Asia to Western Europe. Nowadays Belarus has several well-equipped airports including international ones, the largest of which is Minsk-2.
For the purpose of developing effective foreign trade in the country, appropriate infrastructure is being established. Such infrastructure contributes to the establishment of mutually beneficial business contacts, development of industrial and commercial links, attraction of investments, and new technologies.
A great number of goods produced by Belarusian industries and agriculture are oriented towards the CIS countries’ markets. The largest trading partner of Belarus is Russia, the largest supplier of raw materials to Belarus and the largest consumer of Belarusian investment, chemical, and food products.
The EU is Belarus’ second main trade partner, accounting for almost one third of its overall trade. The main export items from Belarus to the EU are mineral products, petrochemicals and fertilizers, textiles and textile goods, wood and wood products.
The major import and export items are mineral products, machinery and equipment. These sectors contribute 57.9% to total exports and 60.5% to imports. Belarus exports more than 90 % of its car and tractor output, 83% of its machine tool output, 88% of its refrigerator and freezer output, and around 90% of its television and potash fertilizer output.
Global financial and economic crisis caused Belarus less damage than the USA, Russia and other countries in Europe. Smaller impacts are related to smaller, in comparison to many other countries, amount of foreign loans and investments, and incomplete reforms in the domestic stock market.
A key negative effect of the global economic crisis featured a decrease of the demand for the Belarusian goods on foreign markets and of the amount of loans and investments from abroad. To help mitigate the impacts of the crisis, the Government adopted a plan of economic liberalization measures and a set of measures to support major industrial enterprises.
In the year of 2008 some major steps were taken to opening up the country to foreign investors, and improving the investment climate in general. The efforts made resulted in the debut of the Republic of Belarus among the TOP-10 reformers according to the World Bank’s “Doing Business – 2009” report as well as in the significant ranking advance in FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) attraction according to the “World Investment Report 2008” issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
It’s interestingto know …
ü Belarus maintains active relations with international financial organisations. The Republic became a member of the World Bank in 1992. The Bank continues to support Belarus in enhancing the competitiveness of its economy to assure rising incomes and protecting the welfare of the weakest, and addressing global environment, and energy challenges. 2002 saw the approval of a new cooperation strategy between Belarus and the World Bank for the financial years 2002-2004. An energy conservation program in the social sphere was successfully implemented as part of that strategy.
ü In 1992 the country also became a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The International Monetary Fund’s Monitoring Program was put in place in 2001. The Republic has been working with the IMF since 2002 on the implementation of a project for the development of small and medium enterprises.
ü Belarus is a member of the unified customs territory with Russia. For potential investors this means that an investment in Belarus offers access not only to the Belarusian market, but also to Belarus’ giant neighbour to the east.
ü Belarus has established six Free Economic Zones with liberal tax and customs rules. Profit earned by Free Economic Zone residents through the sale of products of own manufacturing is exempted from taxation for a period of five years following its declaration. According to the specific law order a preferential taxation order exists in Free Economic Zones. It includes legislatively established common privileges for all the organizations of Belarus as well as additional privileges and preferences for FEZ residents.
ü Belarus hosts the Foreign Investment Advisory Council, which is headed by the Prime Minister of Belarus. The Advisory Council helps to formulate and implement comprehensive measures aimed at attracting foreign investment and improving business conditions in the Republic, and helps to provide rapid solutions to problems faced by foreign investors in connection with their operations in Belarus.
ü The Republic of Belarus is a member of the Eurasian Economic Community. Apart from Belarus and the Russian Federation, the members of this union are the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Kyrgyzstan and the Republic of Tadjikistan. The creation of a single economic zone on the basis of this union is the major objective of the Republic’s foreign economic policy. This goal is declared by the Treaty on the Tariff Union and Single Economic Zone concluded on 26 February 1999 inMoscow.
Task V. Fill in the derivatives of the words given in the chart below:
| Noun | Verb | Adjective |
| Economy | ||
| compete | ||
| extraction / extractor | ||
| productive | ||
| export | ||
| supply / supplier | ||
| constructive / constructional | ||
| distribute | ||
| employable | ||
| industry / industrialization / industrialist |
Task VI. Match the words in the left column with their definitions in the right column:
| 1. Gross Domestic Product | A. active redirecting of resources from being consumed today so that they may create benefits in the future |
| 2. inflation | B. the way total output or income is distributed among individuals or among the factors of production (labour, land, and capital) |
| 3. economics | C. the monetary value of all the goods and services produced by an economy over a specified period. It includes consumption, government purchases, investments, and exports minus imports |
| 4. economy | D. to ship (commodities) to other countries or places for sale, exchange, etc. |
| 5. economic | E. an act or means of thrifty saving; the management of the resources of a community, country, etc., especially with a view to its productivity |
| 6. economical | F. a persistent, substantial rise in the general level of prices related to an increase in the volume of money and resulting in the loss of value of currency |
| 7. to import | G. to bring in (merchandise, commodities, workers, etc.) from a foreign country for use, sale, processing, re-export, or services |
| 8. to export | H. avoiding waste or extravagance; thrifty |
| 9. investment | I. pertaining to the production, distribution, and use of income, wealth, and commodities; pertaining to an economy, or system of organisation or operation, especially of the process of production |
| 10. distribution | J. the science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, or the material welfare of humankind |
Challenges ahead
Belarus has the potential to provide high levels of income for its population. Located strategically in the corridor between Russia and the EU, Belarus is a major transit route for energy and other products. It has access to growing regional markets. It can benefit from a greater degree of regional integration in trade, energy, environment, etc. The country has ample natural resources. Above all, the population is highly educated. However, to benefit from these opportunities, the country needs to address a number of critical challenges and to demonstrate:
- Increasing energy efficiency and self-sufficiency;
- Facing up to the global environment challenge;
- Enhancing competitiveness through imposing stricter market discipline and encouraging new business growth;
- Continuous increasing productivity, while building a sturdier and more diversified economy;
- Improving the effectiveness of the government.
The Official Website of the World Bank,
April 2009
Daily Life and Customs
During the Soviet era most customs and traditions of Russia’s imperial past were suppressed, and life was strictly controlled and regulated by the state through its vast intelligence network. Beginning in the 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms eased political and social restrictions, and common traditions and folkways, along with the open practice of religion, began to reappear.
Many folk holidays, which are often accompanied by traditional foods, have gained popularity and have become vital elements of popular culture. Festivities generally include street carnivals that feature entertainers and children in traditional Russian dress. Boys usually wear a long-sleeved red or blue shirt with a round, embroidered collar, while girls wear a three-piece ensemble consisting of a red or green sarafan , a long-sleeved peasant blouse, and an ornate kokoshnik.
Maslyanitsa, the oldest Russian folk holiday, marks the end of winter; a purely Russian holiday, it originated during pagan times. During Maslyanitsa (‘butter’), pancakes – symbolizing the sun – are served with caviar, various fish, nuts, honey pies, and other garnishes and side dishes. The meal is accompanied by tea in the ever-present samovar.
Baked goods are ubiquitous on Easter, including round-shaped sweet bread and Easter cake. Traditionally, pashka, a mixture of sweetened curds, butter, and raisins, is served with the cake. Hard-boiled eggs painted in bright colours also are staples of the Easter holiday.
The Red Hill holiday is observed on the first Sunday after Easter and is considered the best day for wedding ceremonies. In summer the Russian celebration of Ivan Kupalo centres on water, and celebrants commonly picnic or watch fireworks from riverbanks.
Another popular traditional holiday is the Troitsa, during which homes are adorned with fresh green branches. Girls often make garlands of birch branches and flowers to put into water for fortune-telling. In the last month of summer, there is a cluster of three folk holidays – known collectively as the Spas – that celebrate honey and the sowing of the apple and nut crops, respectively.
Russia also has several official holidays, including the Russian Orthodox Christmas (January 7), Victory Day in World War II (May 9), Independence Day (June 12), and Constitution Day (December 12). Women’s Day (March 8), formerly known as International Women’s Day and celebrated elsewhere in the world by its original name, was established by Soviet authorities to highlight the advances women made under communist rule. During the holiday women usually receive gifts such as flowers and chocolates.
Although a wide array of imported packaged products are now found in Russian cities, traditional foods and ingredients remain popular, including cabbage, potatoes, carrots, sour cream, and apples – the principal ingredients of borsch, the famous Russian soup made with beets. Normally, Russians prefer to finish their daily meals with a cup of tea or coffee (the latter more common in the larger cities). Also popular is kvass, a traditional beverage that can be made at home from stale black bread. On a hot summer day, chilled kvass is used to make okroshka, a traditional cold soup laced with cucumbers, boiled eggs, sausages, and salamis.
The growth of the Russian middle class has generated dramatic changes in Russia’s lifestyles and social customs. Travel abroad has become popular, and consumption, particularly of imported luxury goods, has increased. Many wealthy individuals have purchased private land and built second homes, often of two or three stories. Russia’s middle class has adopted values that are distinctly different from Soviet practice. The new values include self-reliance and viewing work as source of joy and pride; the middle class also tends to avoid political extremes, to participate in charitable organizations, and to patronize theatres and restaurants. Estimates of the size of the middle class vary (as do definitions of it), but it is generally assumed that it constitutes about one-fourth of Russian society, and much of that is concentrated in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and other urban areas.
The rebirth of religion is another dimension of the changed lifestyles of new Russia. Although a majority of Russians are nonbelievers, religious institutions have filled the vacuum created by the downfall of communist ideology, and even many nonbelievers participate in the now-ubiquitous religious festivities.
Encyclopedia Britannica
Sectors of Economy
Mining is a major sector of the Russian economy and provides a sizable share of the country’s exports. Russia is a leading producer of nickel and aluminium. Nickel ores are extracted primarily in eastern Siberia, although significant deposits are also located in the Kola Peninsula near Murmansk. Aluminium bauxite deposits are located mainly in the Urals and northwest European Russia near Saint Petersburg; other deposits are found in western and eastern Siberia.
Russia ranks among the world’s top five producers of gold, silver, and diamonds. Gold is mined in the Urals, western Siberia, and the LenaRiver valley of eastern Siberia. Most diamonds are extracted in the republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in north-eastern Siberia, and nearly all the output is exported. Silver is mined in the far eastern region, and as a co-product at gold mines in the Urals and western Siberia.
Russia is also among the top five producers of lead, copper, and uranium ores. Lead is mined in European Russia and western Siberia, copper in the southern Urals, and uranium in eastern Siberia. Russia is also an important producer of iron and zinc ores. Most iron extraction takes place in the Kursk region of western Russia, while zinc is mined in Siberia.
Manufacturing: The Russian economy is dominated by large industrial enterprises, and manufacturing remains strongly skewed toward heavy industries. Small and medium-sized enterprises are growing but remain badly underdeveloped by international standards.
Russia’s manufacturing capacity is located principally in western Russia and the Ural Mountains region. Extractive industries, such as mining and oil and gas production, are more widely dispersed, with major facilities located in Siberia. Other industrial centers such as Tomsk and Novosibirsk in Siberia, the eastern regions of Russia remain largely unindustrialized, having traditionally served as a base for the extraction of raw materials and the production of energy. The processing industries are concentrated in Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, and Nizhniy Novgorod. These larger cities have managed the economic transition relatively well, as they have been able to diversify and modernize their industries.
Russia’s manufacturing enterprises produce many types of goods. The machine building sector makes a wide range of products, from computers and precision tools to railroad locomotives, automobiles, agricultural machinery, space vehicles, and military weapons. The metallurgical industry produces a number of specialty steels and non-ferrous metals, and the chemical sector produces an array of industrial chemicals and chemical fertilizers. Some of these manufacturing branches, such as the aerospace industry and certain types of defence production, are technologically advanced, but the overall level of technology in the manufacturing sector is far below the levels of other highly industrialized countries. The technological level of manufacturing processes and products is particularly low in the light-industry sector (which produces consumer goods such as footwear, clothing, and textiles).
Energy plays a central role in the Russian economy because it drives all the other elements of the system – the industrial, agricultural, commercial, and government sectors. In addition, energy, particularly petroleum and natural gas, is the most important export and source of foreign exchange for the Russian economy.
Climatic and geographic factors limit Russia’s agricultural activity to about 10% of the country’s total land area. Of that amount, about 60% is used for crops, the remainder for pasture and meadow. Most of the farmland lies in the so-called fertile triangle. The base of the triangle extends along the country’s western border from the Baltic to the Black seas, and its two sides taper eastward to the southern Ural Mountains, where it becomes a narrow strip of land extending across the south-western fringes of Siberia. East of the Altai Mountains, agriculture is found only in isolated mountain basins along the southern edge of Siberia. Without human modification, areas outside the fertile triangle are unsuitable for crops.
The country’s major grain crops are wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Other important crops are potatoes, sugar beets, and sunflower seeds. Increased production of fodder crops and expansion of pasture land have supported Russia’s livestock industry, although economic conditions have caused cutbacks in animal holdings. Cattle are the most common form of livestock except in the drier areas, where sheep and goats dominate. The third largest category is pigs, which are raised in areas of European Russia and the Pacific coast that offer grain, potatoes, or sugar beets as fodder.
Forestry: Russia is a major producer of lumber and wood products. The principal commercial hardwood tree is birch. The primary areas of timber production are north-western European Russia, the central Ural Mountains, southern Siberia in the vicinity of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, and south-eastern Siberia.
Russia’s fishing industry is one of the largest in the world. More than half of the Russian catch is taken from the Pacific Ocean and its marginal seas, including the Bering Sea. Vladivostok is the largest fishing port and fish-processing centre of the far eastern region; many smaller fishing ports are scattered along the mainland coast as well as on SakhalinIsland. The Sea of Okhotsk is one of the richest fishing grounds, known especially for its salmon. Other species taken in the Pacific include herring, flounder, mackerel, and cod, as well as marine mammals such as walrus and seal.
The IT market is one of the most dynamic sectors of the Russian economy. Since the year 2000 the IT market has demonstrated growth rates of 30-40% a year. The biggest sector in terms of revenue is system and network integration, which accounts for 28.3% of the total market revenues. Meanwhile the fastest growing segment of the IT market is offshore programming.
Important service industries include financial services and insurance; advertising, marketing, and sales; tourism; retail trade. By the beginning of the 21st century, services accounted for more than half of GDP. Still, complaints remained regarding the provision of services by the public sector, particularly the police, schools, and hospitals. Owing to budget shortfalls, many of the public-sector services are poorly financed and have been unable to retain skilled employees.
In the Russian law, there are sectors of the Economy which are considered to be crucial for national security, foreign companies are restricted from owning them. Investments in the so-called Strategic Sectors (oil, gas, media and telecoms) are defined in a law Adopted by the Russian Parliament in 2006 Federal Law ‘On the Access of Foreigners to Strategic Sectors’.
Foreign trade is tremendously important to the Russian economy. The country has generally enjoyed a healthy trade surplus since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The country’s principal exports have traditionally been oil (accounting for about 33% of earnings), natural gas, minerals, military equipment and weapons, gold, shipping, and transport services. Principal imports include machinery and equipment, consumer goods, medicines, meat, grain, sugar, and semi-finished metal products.Russia’s chief trade-partners are the countries of the EU, Belarus, Ukraine, China, and Japan.
It’s interesting to know …
ü Russia is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the G8, APEC and the SCO, and is a leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
ü The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is an intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded in 2001 by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
ü On 29 March 1996 the Eurasian Economic Community originated from a customs union between Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan. It was named EEC on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan signed the treaty. EurAsEC was formally created when the treaty was finally ratified by all five member states in May 2001. Armenia, Moldova and Ukraine have the observer status. EurAsEC is working on establishing a common energy market and exploring the more efficient use of water in central Asia.
ü The ruble or rouble (code: RUB) is the currency of the Russian Federation and the two partially recognized republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
ü Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the US with a modern strategic bomber force. The country has a large and fully indigenous arms industry, producing all of its own military equipment. The country is the world’s top supplier of weapons, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.
ü The country has more than one-fifth of the world’s total forests – an area nearly as large as the continental United States.
ü The Russian fishing industry rivals the size of the world’s other leading producers (Japan, the United States, and China). Russia produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world’s total fresh and frozen fish.
ü Russia produces about one-sixth of the world’s iron ore and between one-tenth and one-fifth of all nonferrous, rare, and precious metals.
ü The Russian Trading System is a stock market established in 1995 in Moscow, consolidating various regional trading floors into one exchange. Originally RTS was modelled on NASDAQ’s trading and settlement software.
ü The Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange or MICEX is one of the largest universal stock exchanges in the Russian Federation and Eastern and Central Europe. It accounts for about 98% of the Russian on-exchange share market.
Task V. Fill in the derivatives of the words given in the chart below:
| Noun | Verb | Adjective |
| average | ||
| mine | ||
| corruption / corruptibility | ||
| top | ||
| import | ||
| innovation | ||
| diversify | ||
| regional | ||
| transit | ||
| service |
Task VI. Match the verbs on the left with a suitable object on the right to make correct word-combinations. Recall the contexts in which these combinations are used:
| 1. to improve | a. budgetary reforms |
| 2. to support | b. banking system |
| 3. to initiate | c. corruption |
| 4. to cause | d. financial position |
| 5. to combat | e. investments |
| 6. to modernize | f. economic priorities |
| 7. to outline | g. a rescue plan |
| 8. to affect | h. growth rates |
| 9. to require | i. industries |
| 10. to demonstrate | j. cutbacks |
Task VII. Read the text again and decide whether these statements about the economy of your country are True or False:
1. Economic growth in 2008 was driven largely by the middle-class expansion.
2. Positive trends in the Russian economy began to reverse in the second half of 2009.
3. In the first year of his term, President Medvedev outlined a number of economic priorities for Russia which reflected different aspects of economic development.
4. Mining provides a sizable share of the country’s imports.
5. Natural resources, especially energy, dominate Russian exports.
6. Russia’s manufacturing capacity is located mainly in the republic of Sakha and eastern Siberia.
7. Russia is one of the world’s two energy superpowers, is rich in natural energy resources.
8. The Russian timber industry is a significant contributor to the economy of Russia.
9. Russia is among the top ten countries in the world as regards marine and inland capture fisheries, and a huge player in terms of processing, trade and a rapidly developing seafood market.
10. The country’s principal imports have traditionally been oil, natural gas, minerals, military equipment, etc.
Task VIII. Read the text more carefully and complete the suggested statements:
1. Russia’s two sovereign wealth funds are: … and … .
2. The decline of Russian stock market was caused by … .
3. Russia’s infrastructure requires … if the country is to achieve broad-based economic growth.
4. Russia ranks among the world’s top producers of … .
5. Russian manufacturing remains strongly skewed toward … .
6. Light-industry sector produces … .
7. … limit Russia’s agricultural activity to about 10% of the country’s total land area.
8. Increased production of … and expansion of … have supported Russia’s livestock industry.
9. The … market is one of the most dynamic sectors of the Russian economy.
10. Russia’s chief trade-partners are … .
Task IX. Check your understanding of the detail by answering these questions:
1. What are the country’s economic priorities?
2. What is a major sector of the Russian economy? What do you know about its development?
3. Where are extractive industries located? What do they include?
4. What type of production do Russia’s manufacturing enterprises produce?
5. Why does energy play a central role in the Russian economy?
6. What is fertile triangle?
7. What are the country’s principal crops?
8. Why are some sectors of the Russian economy called ‘strategic’? What are they?
9. What are the country’s principal exports?
10. What does Russia import?
Task X. Fill in the blanks with the necessary prepositions:
The growth (1) __ any country starts from its capital and Russia is no exception. Moscow is the biggest and most developed city (2) __ Russia. It is also bigger (3) __ terms (4) __ investment, population and economy than any Russian region. But now more and more Russian cities are developing and are very attractive places to conduct business, (5) __ Russian and foreign companies alike. There are several reasons (6) __ that: Moscow became too small (7) __ big businesses, with fewer opportunities; and growth can be sustained only by expanding and multiplying a well-established and well-run business model into the regions. Consumer power is also dramatically growing (8) __ the regions.
There is also the political factor. Several years ago the Russian President changed the established order (9) __ elections for the Governors and Presidents of the Russian regions and created a system (10) __ which the President of Russia appoints Governors and Presidents (11) __ the Russian regions. This was a major factor prompting tremendous growth (12) __ regional business. Previously Regional Governors and Presidents bothered little (13) __ the economic growth (14) __ their region because (15) __ Russia it has never been necessary (16) __ politicians to answer (17) __ the people who elected them. With the new system, key performance indicators needed to be complied (18) __ in order to be appointed (19) __ the President (20) __ the next term: economic growth, social stability and political loyalty.
Russia Beyond the Headlines
20 March 2008
Task XI. Translate into English the sentences that follow:
1. Современная российская политика в отношении трудовых ресурсов ориентирована на сокращение неквалифицированного труда, переподготовку кадров, повышение их профессиональной мобильности.
2. Промышленность России начинает свою историю с конца 17 века, когда в стране возникли первые крепостные мануфактуры.
3. Природные ресурсы, используемые экономикой России, составляют 95,7% национального богатства страны. К ним относятся запасы пресных вод и минерального сырья.
4. По запасам угля РФ занимает лидирующее положение в мире, энергетический потенциал угольной промышленности значительно превышает нефтяной.
5. Россия экспортирует в основном углеводородное сырье (нефть и нефтепродукты, газ, уголь), стальной прокат и некоторые цветные металлы (алюминий, никель, медь) в первичных формах.
6. В агропромышленном комплексе РФ быстрыми темпами идет интеграция и кооперация мелких и средних собственников в акционерные общества, кооперативы, ассоциации, союзы и финансово-промышленные группы.
7. Государственный бюджетв РФ обеспечивает функционирование государства на трех уровнях: общегосударственном, федеральном и местном.
8. Банковская система действует в РФ на двух уровнях: Банк России (Центральный банк РФ) и многочисленные коммерческие банки.
9. Роль банковского сектора в экономике России возрастает: увеличивается кредитование малого и среднего бизнеса, ипотечное кредитование и потребительский кредит.
10. Экономический совет СНГ – основной исполнительный орган, обеспечивающий выполнение соглашений и решений, касающихся формирования и действия зоны свободной торговли, а также других вопросов социально-экономического сотрудничества.
C. Follow-up Activities
Task XII. Share your opinions on the following:
1. Do you think that Russia is still a superpower? Give extensive arguments to prove your position.
2. What are recent positive tendencies in the Russian economy?
3. What type of economy does Russia currently have?
Task XIII. Comment on the quotation:
“The crisis is not only a time for dramatic trials and troubles; it is also a challenge life gives us. We ought to use this opportunity.” Dmitry Medvedev, President of Russia(Russia Today, 04 June 2009)
D. Optional Reading
The Commonwealth of Nations
The 20th century witnessed an intensive process of decolonization of the British Empire. The nations that wanted independence were granted it. A tendency to decolonize grew into a desire to form a great ‘family’, a special union, for economic, cultural and social reasons. The name of that ‘family’ is The Commonwealth of Nations, an association of sovereign states that have been ruled or are still being ‘ruled’ by Britain. The Queen is Head of the Commonwealth of Nations where she is represented by the Governor-General appointed by her on the advice of the Government of the country concerned and completely independent of the British Government.
The Commonwealth is an association of 54 states. Alongside with Britain and such developed countries as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, it includes such large developing countries as India, Nigeria and very small states as Nauru (population — 13,000), as well as dependent territories, like Anguilla, Bermuda, Gibraltar and others. The total population of these member states has been estimated at 1.7 billion (around 30% of the world population). The Commonwealth offers an example of close cooperation among countries of equal status but widely different strength. It is this fact which has often made observers speak about the Commonwealth as a model for international cooperation. The Commonwealth of Nations is listed on the Guinness Book of Records as the World’s largest political alliance.
The Commonwealth is not a federation, because there is no central government, no common defence force, judiciary and no rigid obligations among the members. Nevertheless, all the members of the Commonwealth are bound together by a common sense of ideals and a common interest in the maintenance of peace, freedom and security.
The Commonwealth does not formulate central policies on economic and foreign affairs. However, there is a considerable consultation and cooperation between the member states of the Commonwealth. Consultations among the Commonwealth countries take place through diplomatic representatives known as High Commissioners, meetings of heads of Government, specialized conferences of other ministers and officials, expert groups, and discussions at international conferences and the United Nations. Trade and cultural exhibitions and conferences of professional and unofficial medical, cultural, sports, educational and economic organisations are other ways in which frequent contacts are made.
The Commonwealth has relatively little political machinery. Its most important institution for formal exchange of views, the Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ Meeting (or the Commonwealth Conference), has no executive authority. Heads of Governments usually meet every two years. Proceedings are usually held in private with an informal exchange of views. On international affairs no formal decisions are taken and no attempt is made to formulate specifically Commonwealth policies, although, on occasion, common views on matters of major international concern are formulated and reflected in the communiqué issued at the end of meetings. Conference resolutions have no legal effect, unless adopted by the individual countries. The Meeting of Prime Ministers is, therefore, a means of consultation, not a formal organ for reaching decisions.
The Commonwealth Secretariat provides the central organisation for consultation and cooperation among member states. Established in London in 1965, headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the heads of Government, and financed by member Governments, the Secretariat is responsible to Commonwealth Governments collectively. The Secretariat promotes consultation, disseminates information on matters of common concern, and organises meetings and conferences. Mr. Kamalesh Sharma (India) took over as Commonwealth Secretary-General on 1 April 2008. He was appointed to the post by Commonwealth Heads of Governments at their meeting in Kampala, Uganda, in November 2007.
Commonwealth Day is an annual event during which all the fifty-four member countries of the Commonwealth celebrate their links with one another. Commonwealth Day is held on the second Monday in March, and the day is celebrated around the world – from the Head of the Commonwealth, Her Majesty The Queen, who issues a special message, through Commonwealth Prime Ministers and Presidents to the citizens of the Commonwealth. Everyone celebrates in their own way, from official receptions to school assemblies, sports tournaments to concerts, multi-faith observances to tree-planting ceremonies.
Sectors of Economy
Britain’s land surface is minimal compared to many other nations, but British agriculture is very intensive, highly productive and mechanized. During the 20th century output rose steadily, although the increase slowed towards the end of the century, and agricultural labour became more productive. The improvement was due to innovations in farm machinery, biological engineering of seeds and plants, and the increased use of fertilizers. Compared to other nations in the EU, Britain’s agricultural sector is much smaller in terms of employment and contribution to the GDP. In 2008 agriculture employed approximately 1.4% of the workforce and contributed 0.9% to the total GDP.
Many of Britain’s full-time farms are devoted to livestock farming – raising cattle for dairy products or beef, or raising sheep for wool and meat.
Most crop farming in Britain takes place in eastern and south central England and in eastern Scotland. The leading crops are wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, barley, and rapeseed. As concern has grown about the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and biologically engineered seeds and their effect on the environment, some farmers have turned to organic farming, with support from the government.
The UK retains a significant, although vastly reduced, fishing industry. Fish and fish products are both imported into and exported from Britain. Kingston upon Hull, Grimsby, Fleetwood, Great Yarmouth, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Lowestoft are among the coastal towns that have fishing industries.
Forestry: Britain was once covered with thick forests, but over the centuries the expanding human population steadily deforested nearly the entire country, felling trees for fuel and building materials. Most of the forested area consists of commercially planted, fast-growing coniferous trees in Wales and north-eastern Scotland. Britain has made efforts to increase the managed forest areas. Imports of wood and wood products are substantial because Britain produces only a small proportion of the wood it needs.
Mining: Raw materials for construction fo