From Monks to Modern Schools

In the Middle Ages only a privileged few were taught —by the Church. Progress through the ages has been slow.

The principle that the state should provide education for all boys and girls, regardless of family circumstances and ability to pay, is relatively new in Britain.

It resulted from a 19th-century belief that the state had a responsibility to give every child the chance to learn the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic. Some people thought limited schooling might help control a potentially unruly population; others thought that it was essential to educate youngsters to cope with increasingly complex technology. In 1870, faced with growing pressure, Parliament passed an Elementary Education Act. This was the first step towards a national system of state schools.

Before this, education had not been seen as a general right for all children. Schooling beyond the basics had been the privilege of the wealthier classes.

In the early Middle Ages, the Church played the leading role in formal education. It was mainly for boys who were going to become monks and priests. During the 12th century, many cathedrals set up schools which concentrated on teaching boys Latin grammar — the language of the Church.

Gradually “grammar schools” became more secular — that is, they were not staffed exclusively by clergymen. Many were founded by guilds, the associations of craftsmen and merchants.

The Renaissance encouraged the emergence of a new pattern of teaching in the early 16th century. This concentrated on the classics, the languages and literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This curriculum was to remain the staple diet in grammar schools for more than three centuries. It would also be the focus of learning in “public schools”. These were exclusive institutions, some of them formerly grammar schools, mainly for the sons of the upper and professional classes.

Until the 20th century, grammar schools and public schools were virtually male preserves. In the Middle Ages, there was practically no provision for the education of girls outside the home, except in convents.

Educational provision for the poor was patchy for centuries. The Reformation of the 16th century gave new encouragement to the poor to learn to read, and to read the Bible for themselves. Some learnt at home; some went to women — “dames” — who ran small schools in their homes. This was more common than attendance at a place identifiable as a school.

Charity schools, which gave free teaching and clothing to children of the poor, emerged in the 18th century. Scattered throughout the country, usually in urban areas, these schools were supported by private contributions, often run by religious organizations. These efforts expanded greatly at the beginning of the 19th century.

Many adopted the so-called “monitorial” teaching method, in which the older students (monitors) learned their lessons from the adult teacher and passed them on to the younger children. This developed into a more formal system in which boys and girls were apprenticed for five-year periods as “pupil-teachers” to a school.

The 1870 Act aimed to plug the gaps in this patchy system for children of the poor and labouring classes. It provided for “elementary schools” to be set up in areas which were not adequately covered by voluntary institutions. The term “elementary” referred to the basic nature of the teaching.

But many children did not go to school, often because their families needed them to earn money. In 1880 elementary education was made compulsory across England and Wales. By 1900, in theory at least, free education existed for all children — including girls — to the age of 11. The curriculum, however, was still largely confined to the three Rs.

In 1902, local councils were given control of state schools and encouraged to expand secondary education. They could set up their own schools and they could give cash to existing grammar schools, which continued to be selective in the pupils they accepted.

Shortly before the end of the first world war in 1918, state education was expanded and the school-leaving age raised to 14. From now on education authorities had to provide education up to this age to pupils who could not afford the fees at grammar schools or failed to pass their entry examinations.

State education was expanded again during the second world war. The 1944 Education Act raised the leaving age to 15 and encouraged the development of a system of grammar and “secondary modern” schools, with a small number of technical schools. At the age of 11, children sat an examination called the “11-plus”. The successful few went to grammar schools or occasionally to a technical school. The rest went to the secondary modern.

For the next 30 years a debate raged over selection. Many agreed that to make a decision at 11 which would drastically affect a child’s future was unfair and flawed.

The 11-plus exam largely disappeared over the 1960s and 1970s as more education authorities replaced grammar and secondary modern schools with comprehensive schools. These state schools did not select their pupils but accepted children of all academic capabilities. But selection at 11 has not entirely disappeared and some local authorities have this system.

In the past five years, state education has seen further reform. Schools in England and Wales must now teach a “national curriculum”. Scotland has a recommended curriculum for 5- to 14-year-olds. Northern Ireland now has a curriculum which differs only slightly from that in England and Wales.

Schools can now become “grant-maintained” — they can “opt out” of local-authority control. The Government says that schools will provide a better service if they have more control over their own affairs. Critics suspect that this heralds a return to a selective system and the 11-plus.

A fact-filled diet In Hard Times, Charles Dickens depicts a “ragged school” for poor children, in a grimy northern industrial town. The school follows the theories of its founder – the town’s leading citizen, Thomas Gradgrind – concentrating on cramming facts into its pupils. Gradgrind, a supporter of the new “Utilitarian” philosophy, believes education should consist exclusively of imparting facts and should not seek to develop children’s imagination or ability to think for themselves. Dicken’s disapproval is shown in the effects this has on the younger characters.

2.Trace the history of the development of British school system.

3.Read the text. Replace the italicized link-words by their synonyms, or change the sentences, making sure the meaning remains the same.

Anger over New Exams

Schools have always assessed pupils, but teachers fear the new tests could be used for the wrong purposes.

The debate now raging among politicians, teachers and parents concerns a new system of assessing children at stages during their school careers. There is considerable anger among teachers, particularly about new English tests, which all 14- year-old children in state schools are supposed to sit this summer.

The three main teachers’ organizations, representing almost 400,000 teachers in England and Wales, have either voted already to boycott — to refuse to take part in — these tests, or they are asking their members to vote for a boycott.

The issue of testing schoolchildren has caused some of the fiercest arguments among educationalists since the second world war.

Education has always involved testing and assessment of one form or another. Most teachers would accept the need for measuring the progress of their pupils. Controversy comes over the types of tests and the purposes for which they are used.

Critics of the 11-plus — which was largely phased out in the 1970s — said that it was used to decide a child’s future too early and prevented many children from fulfilling their potential. Children who went to secondary-modern schools — the majority — often felt they had been branded as failures.

During the 1970s most education authorities scrapped the traditional, two-tier system of secondary education. New comprehensive schools took all pupils in their local areas, regardless of intellectual ability.

The whole system of school exams came under scrutiny. In particular O levels — which consisted largely of written exams — were felt to measure a narrow ability range. It was also felt that they did not take a proper account of the work which pupils did before the exam.

Many pupils were excluded from the system. Until the late 1970s a large number of pupils left school without any recognized measure of what they had achieved. In 1988, O levels and CSEs were replaced by a single exam, the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Great emphasis was put on coursework (which had been a feature of CSEs), the assessment of pupils’ performance over the years leading up to the written exams.

At the same time the Government decided that all children in state schools should be assessed according to nationally defined standards at regular intervals throughout their school careers: at the ages of 7,11,14 and 16.

The new tests were linked to the national curriculum established in 1988. This defines the subjects which all state-school pupils from 5 to 16 must be taught. The tests, it is argued, enable teachers, parents and pupils themselves to assess their progress against national standards.

Children who under-perform can be identified by teachers and pulled up to scratch. Parents are supposed to gain a better idea of their children’s progress throughout their schooling and be able to compare schools with one another. The Government says that parents have previously not been given enough solid information about the quality of their children’s education.

These tests have stirred up unease among teachers. The new system is thought by many teachers to be too complicated in its procedures and confused in its aims.

Many teachers believe that they have always been able to measure individual children’s progress themselves much more quickly and simply. They believe that preparing for the national-curriculum tests takes up too much classroom time and squeezes out areas of subjects which the tests do not cover. The tests take on too much importance, they say, and risk becoming the goal of education rather than a helpful tool.

Teachers argue that there are far less disruptive ways of measuring national standards. For instance, small samples of children across the country could be assessed periodically.

Some teachers suspect that there is a hidden purpose in the chosen assessment system. In providing a method for comparing schools, it could mean the reintroduction of selection methods like the old 11-plus as the schools perceived by parents to be the best are inundated with applications. This could eventually restore a two-tier system in state education.

4.Complete the sentences:

1)The new system of assessing children at stages during their school careers causes…

2)Education is impossible without …

3)The 11-plus was phased out because…

4)Comprehensive schools take…

5)The General Certificate of Secondary Education replaced…

6)National standards were defined…

7)Parents should be given…

8)Individual children’s progress can be measured…

9)The new assessment system could mean…

5.In the texts find the words that mean the following:

the basic principles of a subject;

incomplete; only good in parts;

old and torn; imperfect;

covered with dirt;

to fill, close, block;

imperfect, weak, faulty;

to choose not to take part in something;

a specialist in education;

to mark, to give a lasting bad name to;

bringing into disorder.

III1.Consider the following problem topics:

1)Should state school system be selective?

2)A “national curriculum”. Pros and cons.

3)Should schools be controlled by local authorities?

2.Speak on the problem of testing and assessment of pupils’ progress at school. What would you change in the present system of assessing pupils?

3.Additional tasks.

a)Act out the dialogue.

A new boy comes to school.

-What is your name? – asks the teacher.

-My name is William Hopkins, – answers the boy.

-Always say ’sir’ when you speak to a teacher.

-Excuse me, – says the boy, – my name is Sir William Hopkins.

b)What is a lie? Read the passage and answer the questions.

There was a chalk fight in a school classroom during break. John picked up the board rubber and threw it at his friend. He missed and broke a window. The teacher came in a few minutes later and asked, ’Who broke that window?’ John said nothing.

Was John a liar? Who was responsible for breaking the window? Have you ever been in this sort of situation? What happened?

Unit 3. University

Text 1. I Got My B.A. by Sheer Luck, or How Study Skills Saved the Student (by Walter Pauk)

I 1.Read and think about the title. What do you already know about the study skills?

2.Read the following: introduction, first paragraph, first sentence of each paragraph, last paragraph. On the basis of your preview, what does this text seem to be about?

II 1.As you read, make predictions about what the author is going to discuss next.

I Got My B.A. by Sheer Luck, or How Study Skills Saved the Student

In this text Professor Pauk tells about an experience he had when he was an undergraduate. B.A. is a bachelor of arts, an undergraduate college degree.

1. NOW IT CAN BE TOLD: I got my B.A. by sheer luck. I say sheer luck because, if events were ordinary, I would have failed almost every course. Instead, when things looked impossible, some “chance” idea pulled me out. Here is my story.

(What do you think is going to happen next?)

2. Professor Kolb (the students called him “King Tut”) was especially rough this year. Some said that an editor had turned down his manuscript; others said that he was just tired of students. But whatever it was, exactly 63.3 per cent of the class failed Egyptian History. And if it were not for sheer luck, I’d have raised the percentage to 65,4.

3. I remember most vividly the frightening pace of the lectures. No one could take notes as fast as “King Tut” talked, especially when he became excited. My frantic scribbling and almost indecipherable abbreviating were so slow that I missed more than half. Without complete notes, it was impossible to study. I was lucky to have gotten even the 38 on one exam. As the fellows used to say, the “handwriting on the ’sarcophagus’” was clear for me. I knew that my only chance for survival was to get fuller notes.

4. That night after the exam grades came out, I tried to fall asleep – to forget my devastating grade for even awhile – but words like “hieroglyphics” and “rosetta stone” kept kaleidoscoping and rolling through my mind. As I mulled over my missing more than half of each lecture, I suddenly hit upon an idea: Why not leave every other line on my note paper blank? Then during the following period I could recall the lecture and fill in the missing portions. In deference to the ancients, I called this the “Osiris Plan”.

5. The next day I tried the “Osiris Plan”, and it worked! What luck! At first it was difficult to recall the lecture, but as days passed, it became sort of a game. Often, in the privacy of my room I would, in softer voice, imitate the old professor and try to redeliver the lecture as best as I could without looking at my notes. This mimicry almost got me into trouble, when, on a rare occasion, the professor called on me to answer a question. Stunned by being called, I jumped to my feet and for the first two sentences, before I caught myself, the fellows said I sounded “exactly like Old Tut”.

6. One evening while quietly reciting the day’s lecture to myself, I made an important discovery. In trying to make my presentation as smooth as possible (about this time I had begun imagining that I was a lecturer), I used the transitional words “Now that we have discussed the major reason for the phenomenal success of Pharaoh Hophra, let us look at the subsidiary reasons”. At that moment I stopped still, for at no time did the professor ever cut up the lecture into topics and subtopics; nevertheless, the topics and subtopics were neatly packaged and embedded into the seeming onrush of words waiting to be perceived by the student. With this secret in mind, I found that i could take better notes during the lecture, and during the periods after class I could very easily supply the missing portions, filling in the blank every-other-line.

7. I tried to share this find with other students, but they’d always say, “You’re foolish to take all those notes. Just sit back and listen”. Although this sounded too easy to be good advice, I was struck by the great intelligence of my fellow students who could remember the main ideas of lecture after lecture, just by listening. I knew I couldn’t; so to hide my inferior intelligence, I continued taking notes, completing them directly after class, categorizing the ideas, supplying the titles and subtitles, and reciting the lectures.

8. Another incident finally convinced me of my intellectual inferiority when I found that the other students just “flipped the pages” of the textbook. But poor me, I had to work on each chapter for hours. It was only luck that I wasn’t found out, because the professor never quizzed us on our reading; everything depended on the final exam. I was luckier still when, looking in the library stacks for a book on Egyptian religion, I ran across an entire shelf filled with books on Egypt. I spent the rest of the day until 10:00 p.m. (closing time) perusing this lucky find. I finally picked out three books which were written in a style easy enough for me to understand, and I took these back to my room. By first reading these extra books, I found I could come back to the assigned chapter in the textbook and understand it better. I noticed that the author of our textbook frequently referred by footnote to these library books. So with luck I solved the textbook problem.

9. Well, all of this simply led up to the final examination. There I was with a notebook, about two inches thick, filled with lecture notes. Now, was I to memorize all these notes for the exam? And the textbook? Realizing that I didn’t have the brains to memorize everything in my notes, I decided (this time without Osiris’s help) to read each lecture bearing one focusing thought in mind: “What is the really important idea here?” As I found the answer, I’d jot this central point on separate sheets which I called “Summary Sheets”. When I finished, I had “boiled” down inches of lecture notes to just twelve pages of “main issues”. I then did the same with my textbook.

10. Thus armed, I aligned the “Summary Sheets” so that the main issues for both the lecture and textbook synchronized. I learned these main issues by first reading them over, thinking about them, reflecting on them, then without looking at my notes, by trying to recite them in my own words. I went through my summary sheets in the same way, issue by issue.

11. I guess I had played the role of the professor too long, because after having mastered these main issues, I composed ten questions – questions that I’d asked if I were the professor. Still, having some time left, I pretended that I was in the examination room, and spent the next four hours rapidly answering my own ten questions. I then corrected my answers by referring to the lecture and textbook notes, and much to my delight, I had discussed all the facts and ideas accurately. For the first time I felt that I had achieved something. I felt almost adequate. But the warm glow was short-lived. What if the professor didn’t ask what I had staked my life on? Well, I thought, “it is too late to change”. With the feeling that my luck had really run out, I half-heartedly studied for six more hours. I went to bed at 10:00 for a good night’s sleep, having refused to go to the second show of a “relaxing” movie with the rest of the boys.

(What do you think is going to happen next?)

12. On the way to the examination room the next morning, I knew without question that my luck had run out when I met Jack, who sat next to me. He had not taken a single note all semester; he had not even gone through the motions of “flipping” the textbook pages. When I asked why he wasn’t nervous, he answered, “This is the semester for Examination Set #4, the one dealing with dates, names of pharaohs, dynasties, battles and so forth”.

13. “What’s Examination Set #4?”

14. Everybody on campus except me, I guess, knew that old “King Tut” had five sets of examinations (ten questions in every set), which he rotated over a five-year period. Though “King Tut” collected the mimeographed questions from each student, he did not reckon with the organizing ability of fraternity students. The plan worked like this: Specific students were given the mission to memorize question #1, another to memorize #2, and so forth. When the students left the examination room, they jotted down these questions quickly from memory and put them into the fraternity hopper. In this clever way all five sets of the examination found their way into the files of numerous students.

15. I knew then that even Osiris and Ra, put together, couldn’t help me. I had studied relationships.

16. The room was hot, yet others complained of the cold. My mind reeled. I knew my luck had run out. Dimly, as the examination sheets were passed up each row, I heard successive moans of various kinds: “Oh, No!” “No!” and occasional uncontrolled, almost hysterical laughter. I thought that perhaps the professor had by mistake given out Exam #5 instead of the anticipated #4.

17. By the time the sheets reached me (I always sat in the rear corner of the room where it was quieter) I, too, involuntarily gasped, “Oh! It can’t be”. I closed my eyes and waited for my vision to clear so that I could read the ten questions. They were the same ten questions that I had made up only yesterday – not in the same order, but nevertheless, the same ten questions. How could that be? One chance in a million, I’m sure. How lucky can one get? I recovered my composure and wrote and wrote and wrote.

(What do you think is going to happen next?)

18. “Old Tut” gave me a 100 plus. He penned a note saying, “Thank goodness for one good scholar in all my years of teaching”. But he didn’t know the long line of luck that I had, and I never told him.

19. Now that twenty years have passed, I think that it is safe to reveal that here is one fellow who got his B.A. just by sheer luck.

2.Decide if the statements are true or false.

1)The student in actually received his B.A. by sheer luck.

2)Good study skills were not essential to the student’s success.

3)The student’s “Osiris Plan” consisted of leaving every other line blank when taking lecture notes, filling in the missing information later, and then reciting the notes.

4)Because the professor did not organize his lectures into topics and subtopics, the student had to supply the titles and subtitles in his notes.

5)The student decided to take his classmate’s advice and “just sit back and listen” to the teacher’s lecture without taking notes.

3.Select the best answer.

1)The student solved the problem of having a difficult textbook

(a)by flipping through the pages.

(b)by forming a study group to discuss the textbook.

(c)by checking out from the library easier books on the same subject to study along with the textbook.

(d)none of the above.

2)The student’s solution to studying for the final exam was to

(a)read his lecture notes and jot the important ideas on summary sheets.

(b)review his textbook and also make summary sheets with important ideas.

(c)study and recite the information on the summary sheets.

(d)all of the above.

3)Another technique the student used to study for the final exam was to

(a)make up ten test questions from his summary sheets.

(b)get the test questions from his summary sheets.

(c)study the summary sheets and get a good night’s rest.

(d)ask the professor what would be on the test.

4)Which of the following does the student describe as “sheer luck”?

(a)having the misfortune to end up in Professor Kolb’s Egyptian history class.

(b)postponement of the test because the professor became ill.

(c)seeing the same ten questions he had composed for practice actually appear on the test.

(d)getting the test questions from another student.

5)The purpose of this article is to illustrate that

(a)Egyptian history is an extremely difficult course.

(b)academic success depends mainly on hard work and effective study skills.

(c)academic success depends on sheer luck.

(d)a student has little control over academic success.

4.Use the context clues to deduce the meaning of each italicized word. The definition you choose should make sense in both sentences.

1)And if it were not for sheer luck, I’d have raised the percentage to 65.4.

It was sheer coincidence that Mark ran into his religion professor while he was on vacation in Las Vegas.

(a)predictable; (b)pure; (c)ironic; (d)thin or transparent

2)My frantic scribbling and almost indecipherable abbreviating were so slow that I missed more than half.

Because the doctor’s handwriting was indecipherable, the pharmacist had to call her to verify the prescription.

(a)legible; (b)unusually small; (c)unable to be read or interpreted; (d)done quickly

3)My frantic scribbling and almost indecipherable abbreviatingwere so slow that I missed more than half.

By abbreviating many of the words in his notes, the newspaper reporter recorded information very quickly.

(a)writing a word in shortened form; (b)writing a word out in full; (c)omitting a word by mistake; (d)remembering a word rather than writing it down

4)As I mulledover my missing more than half of each lecture, I suddenly hit upon an idea.

Lee mulled over the math problem for twenty minutes before he finally thought of the solution.

(a)understood completely; (b)erased; (c)practiced; (d)considered carefully

5)Now that we have discussed the major reason for the phenomenal success of Pharaoh Hophra, let us look at the subsidiary reasons.

Many large corporations, such as General Mills, own smaller, subsidiary companies.

(a)minor or less important; (b)relevant; (c)primary or main; (d)unknown

6)At that moment I stopped still, for at no time did the professor ever cut up the lecture into topics and subtopics; nevertheless, the topics and subtopics were neatly packaged and embedded into the seeming onrush of words.

The dime was embedded in the asphalt of the street, and no one could pry it loose.

(a)lost; (b)firmly fixed in a surrounding mass; (c)hidden or unable to be seen; (d)placed or positioned by accident

7)I knew I couldn’t; so to hide my inferior intelligence, I continued taking notes, completing them directly after class, categorizing the ideas, supplying titles and subtitles, and reciting the lectures.

Because the builder used inferior paint on the outside of the house, the paint soon began to chip, peel, and fade.

(a)old; (b)surprising and unexpected; (c)untested; (d)lower in quality

8)Thus armed, I aligned the ’summary Sheets’ so that the main issues for both the lecture and textbook synchronized.

Please keep your chairs aligned in rows so that people can get to the chalkboard at the front of the room.

(a)arranged in a straight line; (b)organized; (c)arranged from largest to smallest; (d)arranged in sequence

9)Dimly, as the examination sheets were passed up each row, I heard successive moans of various kinds: ’Oh, No!’ and occasional uncontrolled, almost hysterical laughter.

They tried on four successive days to locate the missing mountain climber, but a blizzard forced them to suspend their search on the fifth day.

(a)successful; (b)unrelated; (c)signifying failure; (d)following in uninterrupted order

10)I recovered my composure and wrote and wrote and wrote.

The little boy began to scream whenever his mother left the room, but he quickly regained his composurewhenever she returned.

(a)memory; (b)joyous outlook; (c)thoughts; (d)calmness

III 1.Explain why you think the author did or did not receive his B.A. by sheer luck.

2.List five behaviors that helped the author succeed in “Old Tut’s” Egyptian history class.

3.What is the most important overall message the writer wants the reader to understand?

4.Additional tasks.

1)Read the following text and say what you think.

There are several good reasons for testing, and kinds of test. But if the aim is to discover weakness, what is the point of down-grading it, and thereby inviting the student to conceal his weakness, by faking and bulling, if not cheating? The natural conclusion of synthesis is the insight itself, not a grade for having had it. For the important purpose of placement, if one can establish in the student the belief that one is testing not to grade and make invidious comparisons but for his own advantage, the student should normally seek his own level, where he is challenged and yet capable, rather than trying to get by. If the student dares to accept himself as he is, a teacher’s grade is a crude instrument compared with a student’s self-awareness. But it is rare in our universities that students are encouraged to notice objectively their vast confusion. Unlike Socrates, our teachers rely on power-drives rather than shame and ingenuous idealism.

2)Decide which of the five choices comes closest to the meaning of the word.

1.The chemistry students were warned of the risks involved in the laboratory experiment. The volatilenature of the chemical made it extremely dangerous.

(a)dependable; (b)harmless; (c)stable; (d)unstable; (e)available.

2.When I left the restaurant, I realized that I couldn’t remember what the waitress looked like. It must have been her ordinary features that made her so nondescript.

(a)impressive; (b)sullen; (c)indistinctive; (d)efficient; (e)personable

3.The priestess at Delphi gave the Greek hero a cryptic answer. No matter how hard he tried he could not understand it.

(a)short; (b)belated; (c)familiar; (d)believable; (e)puzzling.

4.Unlike the desert tortoise, which is active in the summer, the box turtle may estivate.

(a)lay eggs; (b)explore the environment; (c)hunt; (d)remain dormant; (e)look for food.

5.The guest speaker spent thirty minutes at the podium. On the other hand, the chairman spoke with brevity, establishing his position in only ten minutes.

(a)entertainment; (b)conciseness; (c)conviction; (d)clarity; (e)sympathy.

6.The millionaire’s magnanimous gift to the orphanage exceeded everyone’s hopes.

(a)generous; (b)small; (c)modest; (d)seemly; (e)prudent.

7.The twins are different in every way. For example, Sarah has a pleasant disposition, but Charlotte is dour.

(a)talkative; (b)cheerful; (c)arrogant; (d)weird; (e)gloomy.

8.New statistics on the homeless lend credence to the fact that their numbers are growing.

(a)doubt; (b)force; (c)authority; (d)acceptance; (e)opinion.

9.The history class was a heterogeneousmix of students from all races and ethnic groups.

(a)similar; (b)dissimilar; (c)disorderly; (d)wealthy; (e)well-prepared academically.

10.Only a minusculethree percent of the voters approved the bond issue.

(a)minority; (b)decisive; (c)tiny; (d)misinformed; (e)well-read.

11. Unfortunately, husbands and wives who are going through a divorce often develop an adversarial relationship.

Characteristic of (a)enemies; (b)companions; (c)contemporaries; (d)the legal profession; (e)any profession.

12. If one is unused to it, a hot, humid climate makes one feel lethargic.

(a)sharp and keen; (b)disciplined; (c)antagonistic; (d)uncomfortable; (e)dull and heavy.

13.O’Henry’s story, “The Ransom of Red Chief”, ends ironically. The kidnapped child is so obnoxious that the kidnappers are desperate to send him home.

(a)predictably; (b)happily; (c)contrary to one’s expectations; (d)logically; (e)tragically.

14.We are often complacent about the way our lives are going, that is, until some tragedy strikes, like a prolonged illness or being fired from one’s job.

(a)excited; (b)self-satisfied; (c)uneasy; (d)disturbed; (e)relieved.

15.Travelling not only shows us how other people live but also helps us get rid

of our parochial attitudes.

(a)religious; (b)prejudiced; (c)preconceived; (d)restricted in scope; (e)customary.