Lecture 14. Text Linguistics
Text linguistics/ textual linguistics/ text grammar is a rather new branch of linguistics. It deals with the text and regards it the highest unit of speech. If we consider isolated sentences in a discourse/ in the process of a discourse, we find that it's very rare that one sentence expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context. Very many things, we can't translate it without a context and usually in order to make ourselves understood we have to produce a whole sequence of sentences which forms what is termed now discourse — the process of communication.
E.g. It's raining and it's cold (not equal to a phenomenon of nature).
1 don't want to go with her (we should know the whole situation both ultra- and extra linguistic).
I'm sorry!
In fact we speak not in sentences, but in texts. Interest for a good text goes back to old times, to ancient Greece (the 5th century BC). They already wrote books of rhetoric — the problem of a good text, of constructing a good text has always been a very important problem.
Considering the text a unit we should bare in mind some peculiarities, some features.
-a definition;
-features, aspects which single out the text as a special linguistic unit. Unlike definitions of some other linguistic units, it's very difficult to give the definition of the text. The text is a sequence of linguistic units joined together by semantic connections and characterized by integrity (nenocrtiocrb), wholeness (neahHoerb), and cohesion (cBast.).
Textual linguist may understand something, which is as short as a sentence or even art interjection (complete and coherent), as long as a whole text: story, novel. A text should haye certain peculiar features.
Those who studied the text as a unit came to the conclusion that a text as a linguistic unit has its own semantic and structural categories. The semantic categories are:
1) information: any text should carry complete information; it should express a certain communication;
2) profundity: the text should have some depth, some food for thinking, some idea, which may either be expressed, or may be understood implicitly;
3) presupposition: there should be some level at which one communicates. otherwise there may be complete misunderstanding;
4) completeness: the text should be complete in meaning, it shouldn't be abrupt (except for fiction where it's a stylistic device).
As to the structural categories of the text, they are:
Integrity (Lienocrimert.) and integration (how to achieve integrity) are almost alike. In integration you may use certain logical connections and connectors, a certain composition, a certain word order.
Cohesion is used to provide the logical connection (logical connectors: conjunction, parathentic wbrds, the article, pronoininalization).
Retrospection and prospection. Semantically they are profundity and are expressed with the 16 tense-aspect forms.
Polyphony: a good text usually has more than one line of thinking, of reasoning, which is most important for fiction.
Continuum — the text should continue without breaking, it shouldn't be abrupt. Deictic (ces3ronme) elements, tense forms, number forms, mood forms — all this provides for cohesion and continuum of a certain text.
1. Constitutive Principles of Textual Communication
Cohesion (see esp. Halliday and Hasan 1976) is the way in which linguistic items of which texts are constituted are meaningfully interconnected in sequences. Cohesion may be of four types: reference, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical organization. Reference (realized by nouns, determiners, personal and demonstrative pronouns or adverbs) either points out of the text to a real world item (i.e., to its denotate), hence exophoric reference (deixis: Can you see that?), or refers to an item within the text, hence endophoric reference. The two possible directions of endophoric reference are backward (anaphoric r.; direct anaphora: I met a man. He was wearing ..., indirect anaphora: It is a solid house. The walls are thick ...) or forward (cataphoric r.: ... the house whose walls are thick); in the case of a reference to an item of which there is (in the given situation) only one instance, we talk about homophora (e.g. Place the books on the table please). The relationship between two items in which both refer to the same person or thing and one stands as a linguistic antecedent of the other is called coreference (compare He saw himself in the mirror with He saw him in the mirror). Ellipsis, i.e., omission of something referred to earlier, is an instance of textual anaphora (e.g., Have some more). Conjunction, enhanced esp. by syntactic (adverbials – subjuncts, conjuncts, disjuncts; pronouns, metalingual connectors, etc.) and grammatical (concord, sequence of tenses) connectors, creates intricate systems of intratextual bonds. Lexical cohesion establishes semantic (through lexical devices, such as repetition, equivalence - synonymy, hyponymy, hyperonymy, paraphrase, collocation) and pragmatic (presupposition) connectedness; in contrast with the previous types of cohesion, it operates over larger stretches of text since it establishes chains of related references.
Coherence, the sub-surface feature of a text, concerns the ways in which the meanings within a text (concepts, relations among them and their relations to the external world) are established and developed. Some of the major relations of coherence are logical sequences, such as cause-consequence (and so), condition-consequence (if), instrument-achievement (by), contrast (however), compatibility (and), etc. Moreover, it is the general ´aboutness´, i.e., the topic development which provides a text with necessary integrity; even in the absence of overt links, a text may be perceived as coherent (i.e., as making sense), as in various lists, charts, timetables, menus. Contrarily, other types of texts are characterized by explicit cohesive structure signalling intricate logico-semantic relationships (scientific reports, legal texts); in literary works, cohesion may be programmatically suppressed in order to enhance readers´ enjoyment while discovering these links for themselves.
Intentionality relates to the intention on the part of a sender to produce a cohesive/coherent text aimed at attaining an identifiable goal (cf. teleological, i.e., goaloriented nature of the function of language means, Čermák 2001). Acceptability concerns the receivers´ expectation that the text should be coherent/cohesive and of some relevance to them (see also Maxim of relevance, 10.3). Informativity touches upon the (im)probability or (un)expectedness of a text in the given situation; in case a text is improbable (hence unexpected), a ´motivation search´ is performed by a receiver (cf. the Relevance theory based on the basic feature of human cognition, viz. the expectation that a message be relevant, Sperber and Wilson 1986). Situationality concerns the problem of making a text relevant to a situation. Intertextuality is concerned with the ways in which uses of texts depend on the knowledge of other (preceding or following) texts.
2 Regulative Principles of Textual Communication
The principle of efficiency requires that a text should be used with a minimum effort - hence the use of plain (stereotyped and unimaginative) language which, however boring and unimpressive, is easy to produce and comprehend. In contrast, effectiveness presumes leaving a strong impression and the creation of favourable conditions for attaining a communicative goal; this presupposes the use of creative (original, imaginative) language which, however effective, may lead to communicative breakdown. The principle of appropriateness attempts to balance off the two above principles by seeking an accord between the text setting and standards of textuality. As it is obvious from the list of the features on the text level, they provide stylistically motivated explorations with almost unconstrained possibilities of variation leaving an important imprint on the ´style´ of the language output. For example, the degree of modification of the basic syntactic patterns tends to vary according to individual users (e.g., fragmentary individual style as a signal of aversion and distrust, long-windedness of a tedious politician, see Individuality, 3.2.2), momentary situation (urgency), medium, communicative goal (an emotional sermon by a preacher) and purpose/genre (essayistic and literary style where stereotypy is avoided). Generally speaking, unwelcome repetition can be prevented by making use of resources provided by the textual level of language.
Exercises:
Illustrate the semantic and structural categories of the following texts as linguistic
1) With a high number of hydrophobia chains, the polymci coalesces into a get and can be used as a method of delivering drugs to the body Other teams around the world have been able to lond 4-5% of-a g;:! with a treatment drug, using a cross linking, agent to covalently hind the polymer chains. The reaction which creates the covaient linkages could destroy a drug added to the gel so most producers must make the gel first and then add the drug afterwards. Professor Uchegbu':, team have come up with a whole new way of creating the polynies gel which allows for a far higher percentage of the gel to be loaned with the drug.
2) The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped organ. It is about the size of a fist and weighs approximately 230g. The base of the heart, which is directed backwards, lies opposite the borders of the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th thoracic vertebrae. The apex is directed forwards, downwards, and to the left, and is located below the 5th left intercostal space in the mid-clavicular line. In addition to the base and the apex, three surfaces are usually described: the sterno-costal, the left and the diaphragmatic. The stern-costal surface is limited by four borders, which are sometimes referred to as the borders of the heart. The heart is essentially a hollow muscle. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers of tissue. A serous membrane, the pericardium, forms the outer covering of the heart. The middle layer, the myocardium, is the heart muscle proper. This consists of specialized cardiac muscle fibres. Internally the heart is lined throughout with a serous membrane known as the endocardium.
3) Everyone's right to life shall be protected by law
No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law.
Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary
a) in defence of any person from unlawful violence,
b) in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained,
c) in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection.
4) Dear Sir/Madam,
I am writing with regard to your advertisement in "The Guardian" on 10th February. I would be grateful if you could send me further information about your home exchange scheme. However I would appreciate it if you could clarify a few questions I have.
I am interested in visiting Worth Africa, particularly Tunisia, but 1 am only available from the 15th June to the 15th July. Do you think you may be able to find an exchange in this area at such short notice?
I have three small children so the house would need to include some facilities to keep them occupied, for example a swimming pool.
I would like to enquire exactly what type of house is required. I have a spacious cottage with a large garden that is ideal for children. I would be more than glad to send photographs and a more detailed description of our home if this would be of assistance.
I would also like to knov, if the flights must be hooked through your organization, or separately through a travel agent.
Thank you for your kind attention. I would appreciate an answer at your earliest convenience.
Yours faithfully, Jill Thomson
5) Night eating may be an illness
By DAVID DERBYSHIRE SCIENCE CORRESPONDENT PEOPLE who raid the fridge in the middle of the night may be suffering from a genuine medical complaint and not just hunger pangs.
Scientists have discovered biochemical differences in the bodies of people who experience uncontrollable urges to eat late at night.
The fording adds to the evidence that Night Eating Syndrome, as it has been named, is a serious eating disorder.
Doctors proposed the syndrome in the 1950s to explain why between one and two per cent of people admit to regularly raiding their fridges at night. Symptoms of Night Eating Syndrome include having no appetite for breakfast and eating half or more of the day's food after 7pm. Sufferers wake at night hungry and their night-time feasts often consist of carbohydrate-rich crisps and cakes.
Many people with the syndrome are prone to stress and are at greater risk of obesity.
A team of doctors at the University of Tromso, Norway, reports in American Journal of Physiology that they found differences in the way that night eaters' bodies react to the hormone that helps.regulate the body's production of cortisol, the stress hormone.
‘Gap Filling’
The logic of an article or paper , though, does not only depend on the structuring in terms of appropriate levels or units , but also needs to have an internal consistency. This consistency may be reflected (or missing) on two different levels, those of cohesion and coherence. Cohesion is more easily identifiable , as well as achievable , than coherence. It mainly relates to a writer’s ability of linking the individual parts of the document properly by using appropriate connectors, anaphoric or cataphoric expressions, etc., to make the text flow more smoothly and to mark temporal or causal relations. Another thing that is at least partly related to cohesion is the use of commas, with regard to adverbial phrases or lists, etc. or the appropriate use of easy to process co- or subordinated structures. Other types of punctuation may also sometimes present problems, such as the use of semicolons or colons, but their adequate use is often more difficult to explain.