Text 2. GEOLOGICAL AND MINING ENGINEERING

This branch of engineering includes activities related to the discovery and exploration of mineral deposits and the financing, construction, development, operation, recovery, processing, purification, and marketing of crude minerals and mineral products. The mining engineer is trained in historical geology, mineralogy, paleontology, and geophysics, and employs such tools as the seismograph and the magnetometer for the location of ore or petroleum deposits beneath the surface of the earth. The surveying and drawing of geological maps and sections is an important part of the work of the engineering geologist, who is also responsible for determining whether the geological structure of a given location is suitable for the building of such large structures as dams.

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Text 3. MINING

A mineral is generally defined as any naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and consistent physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and marketed at a price that will recover the costs of mining and processing and yield a profit. The naturally occurring substances are usually divided into metalliferous ores, such as the ores of gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc, tin, and manganese, and nonmetalliferous minerals, such as coal, quartz, bauxite, trona, borax, asbestos, talc, feldspar, and phosphate rock. Building and ornamental stones, which form a separate group, include slate, marble, limestone, traprock, travertine, and granite.

Most minerals are found in veins, or tabular-shaped deposits of nonsedimentary origin, often dipping at high angles; in beds, or seams, which are tabular deposits conforming to the stratification of enclosing rocks; and as masses, or large ore bodies of irregular shape standing at any angle. Gold, diamonds, tin, and platinum are often found in placers, or deposits of sand and gravel containing particles of the mineral.

Mining, in its broadest sense, is the process of obtaining useful minerals from the earth’s crust. The process includes excavations in underground mines and surface excavations in open-pit, or opencut (strip) mines. In addition, recent technological developments may soon make economically feasible the mining of metallic ores from the seafloor. Mining normally means an operation that involves the physical removal of rock and earth. A number of substances, notably natural gas, petroleum, and some sulfur, are produced by methods (primarily drilling) that are not classified as mining.

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NOTES:

· manganese – марганец;

· bauxite – боксит;

· open-pit mine – открытые горные работы;

· drilling - бурение.

Text 4. MINING OPERATIONS

Mining operations generally progress through four stages: (1) prospecting, or the search for mineral deposits; (2) exploration, or the work involved in assessing the size, shape, location, and economic value of the deposit; (3) development, or the work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be extracted from it; and (4) exploitation, the work of extracting the minerals.

In the past, ore bodies were discovered by prospectors in areas where veins were exposed on the surface, or by accident. Today, however, prospecting and exploration are skilled occupations involving expert scientific personnel. Teams of geologists, mining engineers, geophysicists, and geochemists work together to discover new deposits. Modern prospecting methods include regional geological studies to define areas where mineralization is likely to have occurred; broad surveys by sophisticated instruments mounted in airplanes and artificial earth satellites to discover anomalies in the earth’s magnetic field, electrical fields, or radiation patterns in order to define the most promising locations; visual examinations of the surface area for coloring, rock formations, and plant life; chemical analyses of soil and water in the area; and surface work with geophysical instruments.

These modern techniques can reveal deep-seated as well as near-surface prospects, and they serve as a basis for preliminary estimates of the economic potential of the prospect. The subsequent exploration work includes digging pits, sinking exploration shafts, and core-drilling operations, all of which tend to define the physical limits of the ore body and permit a more reliable estimate of its economic value. The findings may dictate the method used to reach the ore body, the extent of the development work, and the best method of exploitation.

The decision to develop an ore body is reached as soon as sufficient information is available to indicate a profitable return on the financial investment. Complete certainty about the full potential of the mineral is not crucial at this point; exploration work can continue over many years while the deposit is being mined.

After the decision is made to mine an ore deposit, the mode of entry and the extent of lateral or subsidiary development must be determined. If the ore body lies at or near the surface and extends to a depth of no more than a few hundred feet, it may be developed by an open-pit excavation, using power shovels and large trucks. If, however, it is deep or steeply inclined, access may be made through a vertical or inclined shaft, an adit, or crosscut tunnels. The topography of the region, the geometry and physical nature of the ore body, and the proposed method of exploitation have a bearing on this decision. When the terrain is nearly flat, entry must be made through a shaft. In mountainous regions, access to the ore body may be gained through an adit, a nearly horizontal tunnel from which crosscuts may be driven at right angles to reach the ore. Shaft sinking involves a larger outlay of capital and higher operating costs than an adit or crosscut opening. A shaft requires hoisting equipment to raise the ore and rock to the surface, pumping equipment to dispose of any water present, and structural support for the rock and the mechanical equipment operating in the shaft. In an adit, drainage occurs naturally in all workings above the adit as a result of gravity, and structural support is usually not as costly or extensive.

The problems encountered in the sinking of a shaft may be great, especially if water-bearing strata need to be pierced. The water-bearing strata must be cemented or frozen before excavation begins, and lining the shaft with concrete becomes necessary. Even in dry strata, deep shafts are often lined in order to withstand the lateral pressures in the rocks through which they are sunk. After the shaft or adit is completed, lateral development takes place, and crosscuts are driven to reach the ore deposit at different levels. An extensive mine may have a main hoisting shaft and one or more auxiliary shafts or adits for supplies and ventilation. Many state mining laws require mines to be equipped with at least two points of entry and egress to improve the degree of safety for miners.

The method chosen for mining will depend on how maximum yield may be obtained under existing conditions at a minimum cost, with the least danger to the mining personnel. The conditions include the shape, size, continuity, and attitude of the ore body; the mineralogical and physical character of the ore, and the character of the wall rock or overlying material; the relation of the deposit to the surface, to other ore bodies, and to existing shafts on the same property; the skill of available labor; and regional economic conditions. These variables are interdependent and of varying importance, but maximum profit and maximum extraction are closely related, because a method that sacrifices part of the ore body often yields maximum profit. In view of these considerations, open-pit mining tends to be more economical than underground mining, except in regions where climatic conditions are so severe that surface mining is often impossible.

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NOTES:

· prospecting – разведка, поиски (геол.);

· exploration – исследование, разведка месторождений;

· pit - шахта;

· sinking – шахтный ствол;

· shaft – буровая скважина, ствол шахты, вал, ось, стержень;

· ore body – рудное тело, сплошное месторождение, рудный пласт;

· adit - штольня;

· hoisting – шахтный подъем.