Translate the following passage from Russian into English.
Стволовые клетки обладают потенциалом в различных областях здоровья и медицинских исследований. Прежде всего, изучение стволовых клеток поможет нам понять, как они трансформируются в невероятное множество специализированных клеток, которые делают нас такими, какие мы есть. Некоторые из наиболее серьезных медицинских состояний, таких как рак или врожденные дефекты, обязаны проблемам, которые случаются где-то в этом процессе. Лучшее понимание нормального клеточного развития позволит нам понять и, возможно, исправить ошибки, которые вызывают эти медицинские состояния.
Другим потенциальным применением стволовых клеток является создание клеток и тканей для медицинской терапии. Сегодня донорские органы и ткани используются для замещения тех, которые больны или повреждены. К сожалению, число людей, нуждающихся в трансплантатах, значительно превышает число органов, доступных для пересадки. Плюрипотентные стволовые клетки представляют возможность возобновляемого источника пересаживаемых клеток и тканей для лечения бесчисленных заболеваний, состояний и недомоганий, включая болезнь Паркинсона, амиотрофического латерального склероза, повреждений спинного мозга, ожогов, сердечных заболеваний, диабета и артрита.
| Over to you |
1. Discuss the following questions:
- Why do we need vaccines? What is immunization? What is immunity?
- What is a clone? Has someone really cloned a person? Is it possible?
- Have human embryonic stem cells been used successfully to treat any human diseases yet?
- What are different uses for aspirin?
- How is the blood group related to the immune system?
2. Prepare your projects on one of the following topics:
- Anticancer effects of aspirin.
- Why do scientists want to use stem cells?
- About any disease mentioned in the article.
| Writing |
1. Decide which you think the ten top medical advances of the last 50 years or less and write a report describing one of them and explain why you consider it to be important.
THE DISCOVERY OF ANTIBIOTICS
| Vocabulary |
1. Match the words with their definitions and write the transcription of the words in column 2. Translate the words in column 1 into Russian:
| 1)inhibit (v.) | a) excessive use | |
| 1) in vitro (adv.) | b) effective against a wide variety of diseases or microorganisms | |
| 2) pharmacokinetics(n.) | c) to stop, prevent, or decrease the rate of (a chemical reaction) | |
| 3) cephalosporin (n.) | d) any of a group of synthetic antibiotics, including ciprofloxacin, that inactivate an enzyme required for the replication of certain microorganisms | |
| 4) enzyme (n.) | e) to intensify or increase in quality, value, power, etc. | |
| 5) quinolone (n.) | f) to take, carry, or transport from one place to another | |
| 6) broad-spectrum(adj.) | g) within a vein | |
| 7) enhance (v.) | h) by way of; by means of; through | |
| 8) plasmid (n.) | i) the branch of pharmacology concerned with the way drugs are taken into, move around, and are eliminated from, the body | |
| 10) convey (v.) | j) any of a group of complex proteins or conjugated proteins that are produced by living cells and act as catalysts in specific biochemical reactions |
| Before you read |
You are going to read an extract from Wikipedia the encyclopedia about the discovery of antibiotics, the powerful substances that saved the world. So, first of all, discuss with your partner the following questions.
- Why antibiotics can be called one of the advances in medicine?
- What are antibiotics and how do they work?
- What outstanding scientists discovered antibiotics?
- When and how was the discovery made?
Skim the text to check your ideas.
| Reading B |
ANTIBIOTICS
Before the early twentieth century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between micro-organisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. The term antibiosis, meaning "against life," was introduced by the French bacteriologist Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs.
Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist in 1942.
The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.
Like antibiotics, antibacterials are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most antibacterial antibiotics target bacterial functions or growth processes. Antibiotics that target the bacterial cell wall (such as penicillins and cephalosporins), or cell membrane (for example, polymixins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (such as quinolones and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis, such as the aminoglycosides, macrolides, and tetracyclines, are usually bacteriostatic. Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, three new classes of antibiotics have been brought into clinical use. These new antibacterials are cyclic lipopeptides (including daptomycin), glycylcyclines (e.g., tigecycline), and oxazolidinones (including linezolid).
The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibacterial drugs is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibacterial drug therapy. The antibacterial treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibacterials. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection within whole bacterial populations for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance. Resistance to antibacterials also occurs through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use.
Antibacterials like penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, because of increased resistance of many bacterial strains. Antibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost thereby reducing fitness of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.
Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.
Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases which were for a while well-controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. United Kingdom Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections."
Antibiotic resistance is a problem because infections due to resistant bacteria are more difficult to treat, may result in longer and more severe illness, or expensive hospitalizations, and may need treatment with stronger antibiotics that can cause more serious side-effects. The problem of antibiotic resistance is getting worse. As the number of resistant bacteria grows, we may lose the ability to cure bacterial infections and people may die from common infections like pneumonia.
The misuse and overuse of antibiotics in humans, animals, and agriculture is responsible for the current problem of antibiotic resistance. Humans contribute to the problem in several ways:
· Taking antibiotics when they are not necessary, such as for viral infections.
· Demanding antibiotics when antibiotics are not appropriate OR insisting on a prescription for an antibiotic when your doctor says they are not necessary.
· Not taking your prescribed antibiotic for the full course of treatment.
· Using antibiotics without a doctor's care or using leftover antibiotics.
It is estimated that up to 50% of antibiotics used in humans may be inappropriate. Most of this inappropriate use is for illnesses due to viruses-- against which antibiotics are ineffective. It is very important to do what we can to slow resistance now. The best way to do that is to reduce inappropriate antibiotic use.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Reading Comprehension |