The category of finitude: finite and non-finite forms of the verb. Категория финитности: личные и неличные формы глагола.
The grammatical meaning of the singular is traditionally defined in a simplified way as “one”, and the meaning of the plural – as “many (more than one)”. This is true for the bulk of the nouns, namely those denoting simple countable objects (table – tables). But the noun in the singular can denote not only “one discrete separate object”, but also substances (water), abstract notions (love), units of measure (hour) and other referents. The same applies to the meaning of the plural: plural forms do not always denote “more than one object”, but express some other meanings, such as feelings (horrors of war), sorts of substances (wines), picturesqueness (sands, waters), etc. Thus, the broader understanding of the grammatical meaning of the singular can be defined as the non-dismembering reflection of the referent and the grammatical meaning ofthe plural as potentially dismembering reflection of the referent; or, in other words, the singular forms of nouns present their referents as indivisible, and the plural forms – as divisible.
Категория числа выражается через парадигматическое соотнесение двух форм существительного: формы единственного числа и формы множественного числа. Грамматическое значение форм единственного числа традиционно определяется в несколько упрощенном представлении как «один», а значение форм множественного числа – как «много, больше чем один». И это верно для большинства существительных, а именно, для тех из них, которые обозначают простые исчисляемые объекты (table – tables). Однако существительное в единственном числе может обозначать не только «один отдельный объект», но и вещества (water), абстрактные понятия (love), единицы измерения (hour) и другие референты. То же самое относится и к трактовке значения множественного числа: формы множественного числа не обязательно выражают «больше чем один объект», но и другие значения, например чувства (horrors of war), виды веществ (wines), живописную образность (sands, waters) и т.д. Таким образом, в более широком толковании значение единственного числа может быть определено как потенциально нерасчленимое представление референта, а значениемножественного числа – как потенциально расчленимое представление референта; другими словами, формы единственного числа представляют референт существительного как нечленимый, а формы множественного числа – как членимый.
14. The oppositional substitutions neutralization and transposition
Grammatical oppositions can be reduced in some contextual circumstances, when one member of the opposition is used with the meaning of the other member, or, in other words, substitutes its counter-member. This phenomenon in the theory of oppositions is treated as “oppositional reduction” or “oppositional substitution”.
Two types of oppositional reduction can be distinguished in grammar: neutralization and transposition. Neutralization takes place when the grammatical form, which is used, loses its own functional meaning and acquires the meaning of its counter-member; in other words, it becomes functionally equivalent with its oppositional counter-member. This type of oppositional reduction is stylistically indifferent (neutral); in most cases it happens when the weak member of the opposition is used in the meaning of the strong one, e.g.: The rose is my favourite flower (=Roses are my favourite flowers) - the singular, the weak member of the number category opposition, is used instead of the plural, the strong member. Transposition takes place in cases where one member of the opposition preserves to a certain extent its original functional meaning alongside the meaning of its counterpart; the two functional meanings are actually combined. This type of oppositional reduction is stylistically marked. Because of the combination of meanings and the additional stylistic colouring created, transposition can be treated as a grammatical mechanism of figurativeness, or a grammatical metaphor. In most cases it happens when the strong member of the opposition is used with the meaning of the weak one. E.g.: the waters of the ocean, the sands of the desert – the plural, the strong member of the number category opposition, is used instead of the singular, the weak member.
Грамматические оппозиции могут подвергаться редукции при функционировании грамматических форм в некоторых контекстах, когда один член оппозиции используется в значении другого члена, другими словами, замещает свой противочлен. Это явление в теории оппозиций трактуется как «оппозиционная редукция» или «оппозиционное замещение».
В грамматике различаются два типа оппозиционной редукции: нейтрализация оппозиции и транспозиция. Нейтрализация оппозиции имеет место в тех случаях, когда используемая грамматическая форма утрачивает собственное функциональное значение и приобретает значение своего противочлена; другими словами, грамматическая форма становится функционально эквивалентой своему противочлену по оппозиции. Этот вид оппозиционной редукции не имеет выраженного стилистического (экспрессивного) предназначения, стилистически нейтрален; в большинстве случаев это происходит при использовании слабого члена оппозиции в контекстах, характерных для сильного члена оппозиции, например: The rose is my favourite flower (=Roses are my favourite flowers) - единственное число, слабый член оппозиции по категории числа, используется вместо множественного числа, сильного члена оппозиции. Транспозиция имеет место в тех случаях, когда используемая форма сохраняет отчасти собственное значение наряду с приобретаемым значением своего противочлена, и два функциональных значения объединяются. При транспозиции заместительное использование грамматической формы стилистически маркировано. Соединение двух функциональных значений и возникающая дополнительная стилистическая окраска позволяют трактовать транспозицию как грамматический механизм создания выразительности, или как свого рода грамматическую метафору. Чаще всего транспозиция происходит при использовании сильного члена оппозиции в значении, характерном для слабого члена оппозиции. Например: the waters of the ocean, the sands of the desert - множественное число существительного, сильный член оппозиции, используется вместо единственного числа, слабого члена оппозиции.
The category of aspect
In general the category of aspect shows the way or manner in which an action is performed, that is whether the action is perfective (совершенное), imperfective (несовершенное), momentary (мгновенное, однократное), iterative (многократное, повторяющееся), inchoative (зачинательное), durative (продолженное, длительное), etc.
In English the category of aspect is constituted by the opposition of the continuous aspect and the common aspect.
The opposition the continuous aspect <——> the common aspect is actualized in the following contrasting pairs of forms:
| Continuous | Common |
| is speaking | speaks |
| was speaking | spoke |
| will be speaking | will speak |
| has been speaking | has spoken |
The forms in the left-hand column (whether taken in context, or treated by themselves) have a definite meaning: they describe an action as a concrete process going on continuously at a definite moment of time, or characteristic of a definite period of time (hence its name – the continuous aspect). The forms in the right-hand column, if treated by themselves, are devoid of any specific aspectual meaning. They denote the action as such, in a most general way, and can acquire a definite and more specified aspective meaning due to the lexical meaning of the verb and specific elements of the context in which they are used. Thus, for example, the verb form sang, when regarded out of context, has no specific aspectual characteristics, conveying only the idea of the action of singing with reference to the past. However when the same form is used in the context, it acquires the aspectual meaning conferred on it by that context. Compare the following sentences:
When he was young he sang beautifully (пел = умел петь).
He went over to the piano and sang two folk-songs (спел).
He went over to the piano and sang (запел).
While everybody was busy lighting a camp fire, he sang folk-songs (пел).
The fact that these forms may express different aspectual meanings according to the context, accounts for the term – the common aspect.
Whereas all verbs can be used in the common aspect, there are certain restrictions as to the use of the continuous aspect. Some verbs do not usually have the forms of the continuous aspect. They are referred to as statal verbs. The most common of them are the following:
Relational verbs have, be and some link verbs:
become, remain, appear, seem, sound.
However, both to be and to have can be used in the continuous aspect forms where to be has the meaning to act and to have has a meaning other than to possess.
She is so foolish!
I have three brothers.
She is being so foolish (acting foolishly) today.
I am having dinner (am dining) now.
Other verbs having the same meaning of relation are not used in the continuous aspect forms:
| to apply to to belong to to compare (to) to concern to contain to cost to depend on to deserve to differ from | to exist to hold to interest to matter to measure to own to possess to remember to stand for to weigh |
Verbs expressing sense perception, that is involuntary reactions of the senses:
to feel (чувствовать),
to hear (слышать),
to see (видеть),
to smell (чувствовать запах),
to taste (чувствовать вкус).
However these verbs as well as other statal verbs may be sometimes used in continuous and perfect continuous forms, especially in informal English.
Verbs expressing emotional state:
to care, to detest, to envy, to fear, to hate, to hope, to like, to love, to prefer, to want, to wish.
Verbs expressing mental state:
to assume, to believe, to consider, to doubt, to expect, to find, to forget, to imagine, to know, to mean, to mind, to notice, to perceive, to remember, to suggest, to suppose, to think, to understand.
Note:
Care should be taken to distinguish between some of these verbs denoting a mental state proper and the same verbs used in other meanings. In the latter case continuous aspect forms also occur.
I am forgetting things more and more now (beginning to forget).
She is understanding grammar better now (beginning to understand).
Moreover, the verbs can occur in the continuous aspect when the ideas they denote are to be emphasized:
Don’t shout, I‘am hearing you perfectly well!
Why are you staring into the darkness? What are you seeing there?
Are you still remaining my friend.
You see, she’s knowing too much.
They don’t know that inside I know what they’re like, and that all the time I’m hating them.