Why do we choose postgraduate studies?
Имени Н.И.Вавилова»
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ МАГИСТРОВ
«ENGLISH FOR SCIENCE»
Саратов 2014
УДК 802/809- 07
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ для магистров «English for Science» / Составитель: Э.Б. Калиниченко, О.В. Романова; Саратов, 2014. – 75 с.
Цель пособия – формирование навыка использования иностранного языка в деловой, научной и профессиональной коммуникации.
Утверждено кафедрой
в качестве учебно-методического пособия
для магистров
Рецензент:
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент О.Б. Верстакова
(Саратовский государственный аграрный университет имени Н.И. Вавилова)
Кандидат педагогических наук, профессор О.Б. Капичникова
(Саратовский государственный университет имени Н.Г. Чернышевского)
Работа издана в авторской редакции
© Э.Б. Калиниченко, 2014
© О.В. Романова, 2014
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Данное пособие представляет собой комплексный курс английского языка направленный на развитие навыков устной речи и чтения научной литературы на базе знаний предусмотренных программой по английскому языку для неязыковых вузов.
Пособие состоит из текстов, сопутствующих им упражнений, а также заданий по развитию навыков устной речи (монологической, диалогической) и письменной речи (умение писать резюме, тезисы, рефераты).
Пособие позволяет подготовиться к сдаче экзамена, как в группах, так и самостоятельно.
PART I
MY SCIENTIFIC WORK
Why Do We Choose Postgraduate Studies?
What does choosing the postgraduate course mean for a person? It is going up the level higher than the first degree. What are the reasons for taking postgraduate studies? The first one is the stimulus of the intellectual challenge: working with concepts, approaches, methods and ideas, developing skills of analysis and research among the researchers and academics.
The second reason is the personal challenge. What is the difference between the undergraduate and the postgraduate level? Undergraduate level develops study skills and the ability of independent studies, and the postgraduate course specifies skills perfection, responsibility, independence in one’s own learning, ability to work with complex ideas and concepts and developing them.
Next, there is the serious problem of career prospects, more interesting and highly paid jobs. PhD degree or degree of Doctor of Science can be an obligatory requirement for entering the career, the researcher career or securing promotion to higher levels. In some professional fields the joint programs of universities and employers are undertaken both at undergraduate and postgraduate level and these programs are defined as the first stage of learning for the trainees.
For a number of postgraduates entering academic career as the university teacher and researcher is important. Besides, with rapid extension of higher education in some countries high-status academic position is available only with the Doctorate. It means the increase of the demand for people educated to Doctorate level.
Task 4Read the dialogue and discuss your motivation to enter the postgraduate studies. Make up a dialogue.
Motivation to Enter the Postgraduate Studies
− Jane, I have not recently seen much of you.
− In fact, I was very busy with entrance exams for postgraduate studies.
− How clever of you!
− You see, mostly it’s my choice of intellectual challenge: working with concepts, approaches, methods and ideas, developing skills of analysis and research among the researchers and academics. Besides, it’s the personal challenge as well. I would like to master my personal skills. They improve the development of my future career.
− I myself would also like to take undergraduate course in Computer Science to be able to carry out research projects at the high-tech level.
− Good luck.
Task 5Answer the questions and speak about your supervisor. Present your own ideas of the scientific work.
Part II
SCIENCE
SCIENCE (II)
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is an enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world. An older and closely related meaning still in use today is that of Aristotle for whom scientific knowledge was a body of reliable knowledge that can be logically and rationally explained. Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words "science" and "philosophy" were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called "natural science") had begun to be considered separately from «philosophy» in general, while, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science.
However, in modern use, "science" is still mainly treated as synonymous with 'natural and physical science', and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use. The word "science" became increasingly associated with the disciplined study of physics, chemistry, geology and biology. This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of academic study as social science. In its turn the term «humanities» or «arts» refers to the subjects of study that are concerned with the way people think and behave, for example literature, language, history and philosophy (as it understood nowadays).
Science is often distinguished from other domains of human culture by its progressive nature: in contrast to art, religion, philosophy, morality, and politics, there exist clear standards or normative criteria for identifying improvements and advances in science. For example, the historian of science George Sarton argued that “the acquisition and systematization of positive knowledge are the only human activities which are truly cumulative and progressive,” and “progress has no definite and unquestionable meaning in other fields than the field of science”. However, the traditional cumulative view of scientific knowledge was effectively challenged by many philosophers of science in the 1960s and the 1970s, and thereby the notion of progress was also questioned in the field of science.
Debates on the normative concept of progress are at the same time concerned with axiological questions about the aims and goals of science. The task of philosophical analysis is to consider alternative answers to the question: What is meant by progress in science? This conceptual question can then be complemented by the methodological question: How can we recognize progressive developments in science? Relative to a definition of progress and an account of its best indicators, one may then study the factual question: to what extent, and in which respects, is science progressive?
Task 3.1. Say if the following statements are true of false. Correct the false statements.
1. The term «science» is applied only to natural science. 2. The word «knowledge» is derived from the negation «no», meaning the path leading from ignorance to understanding the world. 3. Natural and physical sciences deal with testable explanations and predictions. 4. Aristotle studied the body of a human being and gained a reliable knowledge in this sphere. 5. There was a time when «science» and «philosophy» meant the same. 6. The word «science» and the word combination «natural and physical science» are looked upon as synonymous. 7. Pure mathematics is included into the notion «natural and physical science». 8. Library science naturally belongs to humanities.
Task 3.2. Read the whole text again and see if any corrections should be made in your original outline. Write an abstract of the text in three sentences.
Task 4. Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE
As students of science you are probably sometimes puzzled by the terms "pure" and "applied" science. Are these two totally different activities, having little or no interconnection? Let us begin by examining what is done by each. Pure science is primarily concerned with the development of theories (or, as they are frequently called, models) establishing relationships between the phenomena of the universe. When they are sufficiently validated these theories (hypotheses, models) become the working laws or principles of science. In carrying out this work, the pure scientist usually disregards its application to practical affairs, confining his attention to explanations of how and why events occur.
Exact science in its generally accepted sense can be referred to as a family of specialized natural sciences, each of them providing evidence and information about the different aspects of nature by somewhat different working methods. It follows that mathematics in its pure sense does not enter into this frame, its object of study, being not nature itself Being independent of all observations of the outside world, it attempts to build logical systems based on axioms. In other words, it concentrates on formulating the language of mathematical symbols and equations which may be applied to the functional relations found in nature.
This "mathematization", in the opinion of most specialists, is witnessed first in physics which deals with general laws of matter and energy on subatomic, atomic and molecular levels. Further application of these mathematical laws and studies is made by chemistry and results in structural bonds between the elements of matter being established.
Task 6.1. Check up for comprehension.
1. Does the author give definition of both "pure" and "applied" science? 2. Find the word which is used as an equivalent of "sciences". 3. When does a hypothesis become a principle of science? 4. What questions is the pure scientist concerned with? 5. Find the words equivalent to "how and why events occur". 6. What is usually disregarded by the pure scientist? 7. What is generally understood by exact science? 8. How does the author describe "specialized" natural sciences? 9. Why does mathematics not belong to this family? 10. What is the objective of mathematics? 11. Is there only one definition of the objective? 12. What does the application of mathematical laws in chemistry result in?
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION.
INFINITIVE CONSTRACTION.
Task 8.1. Identify the infinitives and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. To make a choice between these two alternatives is not an easy task. 2. To be on the safe side, take special care of the accuracy of the calculation. 3. To foresee what the future will be like requires analysis of the past experience. 4. To tell the truth, the results have no direct bearing on the problem under investigation. 5. To argue about it is not fruitful at the moment. 6. To establish cause-effect relationship between smoking and some diseases, extensive research is being carried on at several research centres. 7. To sum up, synthetic problems are studied for the possibilities which they hold for practical appUcations. 8. To put it another way, the experimental procedure must suit the purpose of the experiment. 9. To be able to forecast the future, we must begin by a thorough analysis of the past course of events.
Task 8.2. Give English equivalents of the italicized parts of the sentences.
1. Для того чтобы соответствовать цели эксперимента, метод должен быть прост. 2. Установить причинно-следственные отношения часто означает решить проблему. 3. Предвидеть будущее невозможно без анализа прошлого. 4. Говоря по правде, все ожидали совершенно других результатов. 5. Сделать выбор часто бывает самым трудным. 6. Чтобы не рисковать, проверьте аппаратуру перед экспериментом ещё раз.
Task 8.3. Identify the structures and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. The analysis has been extended (so as) to take into consideration the unavoidable by-eflfects. 2. Two hydrogen atoms combine to form a hydrogen molecule. 3. Under this assumption the equation is reduced to yield a classical relation. 4. We do not expect to solve all these problems by the turn of the century. 5. The new substance readily reacts with alkali metals to give rise to alloys with predetermined characteristics. 6. At this stage a new theory was advanced to produce a revolutionary change in our understanding of the process.
Task 8.4. Identify the structures and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. They claim to have accounted for the effect observed. 2. He admits to have made a similar mistake in his earlier publication. 3. He was sorry to have occupied himself with the problem for so long, and not to have given it up earlier. 4. They admit to have been informed of this possibilily before the experiment. 5. Mark Twain allegedly remarked once that a classic is something which nobody wants to read but everybody wants to have read. 6. To write with precision, it is necessary to have thought logically first.
Task 8.5. Identify the structure and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. The aim was to discuss the impact of scitific activity on technology. 2. If we are to achieve the aim we must confine our attention to one point only. 3. Perhaps the greatest problem at present is to get some understanding of the remarkable phenomenon o memory. 4. The original idea was to take advantage of the high temperature of the process. 5. Glass which is to be used for lenses must be almost colourless. 6. The train is to reach its destination in 52 hours. 7. The joint programme of Soviet and foreign scientists on space research is to be discussed at the next COSPAR conference. 8. Many terrigenous bacteria which have become adapted to salt water are to be found close inshore.
Task 8.6. Give English equivalents of the italicized part of the sentences.
1. Если мы хотим добиться цели, мы должны примять во внимание все источники ошибок. 2. Цель этой книги - дать обзор последних достижений в этой области исследования. 3. Наша задача заключается в том, чтобы обеспечить условия, наиболее благоприятные для работы. 4. Самое важное - это сосредоточить внимание на одном вопросе. 5. Нам предстоит подкрепить эту интерпретацию новыми экспериментальными данными. 6. Задача семинарских обсуждений заключается в том, чтобы предлагать новые эксперименты.
Task 8.7. Identify the structures and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. The consequences might be so disastrous as to exceed anything imaginable. 2. His story of the past is too personal to have any bearing on other people's experience. 3. The advantages of such an approach are evident enough to be taken for granted. 4. The experiment produced enough evidence to support the interpretation suggested. 5. The failure of the project was such as to discourage further efforts for many a year. 6. The information available was not sufficient to contribute to the clarification of the problem. 7. The assumption is reasonable enough to be valid.
Task 8.8. Translate into English.
1. Предположение было слишком неожиданным, чтобы его можно было принять без доказательств. 2. Идеи слишком опережают свое время, чтобы их можно было сразу же принять. 3. Аргументы представляются достаточно разумными, чтоб изменить ход обсуждения. 4. Данных было недостаточно, чтобы внести ясность в эту проблему. 5. Это предложение не так важно, чтобы его рассматривать на сегодняшнем заседании.
Task 8.9. Distinguish indefinite and perfect infinitives. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The history of the last 30 years shows him to have done very well. 2. We know him to have established a school of his own. 3. We do not expect him to throw away an opportunity like this. 4. We know him to have objected to this style of research on previous occasions. 5. They considered all water on the surface of this planet to have been liberated by volcanic action.
Task 8.10. Distinguish active and passive infinitives. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. This allowed him to follow the rules. This allowed the rules to be followed. 2. This information enabled the scientist to make a forecast for the next few years. This information enabled forecasts for the next few years to be made. 3. This analysis permitted them to tackle the problem directly. This analysis permitted the problem to be tackled directly.
Task 8.11. Identify the structures and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. What enabled the scientist to do so well with this disastrous situation? 2. They could not tolerate other people taking up the problem which they had been investigating for so long. 3. At that time the project, later to be taken over by another laboratory, was still in progress. 4. After a long discussion and argument they still could not agree as to what might be the best way to provide an atmosphere necessary for research. 5. He was always the first to take up a complicated problem and the last to give it up. 6. It is highly desirable to get these values checked before another series of experiments. 7. Instead of having astronomers watch the stars go around each other, why can we not take a ball of lead and a marble and watch the marble go toward the ball of lead? 8. The first section of each article will be devoted to a short summary of the history of the problem, to be followed by a review of the modern advance. 9. Philosophy is a distinct science with its own clearly defined subject matter to be studied in the same specific way as that of any other science. 10. On assuming the body with the mass M to be acled upon by force F, let us calculate acceleration. 11. Later we find Shakespeare using this style in prose dialogue; sometimes merely in caricature, but at other times quite seriously. 12. An important point to he dealt with in the next chapter is different techniques of data-processing. 13. It is sometimes very difficult to get people to agree upon most obvious things, although the things to be agreed upon may be generally accepted as urgent. 14. One can hardly expect a true scientist to keep within the limits of one narrow long-established field, leaving most fascinating problems to be found on the frontiers, out of the scope of his inquiry. 15. Good management means getting things done rather than doing things. 16. This amounts to assuming the rate of our knowledge growth to depend on the amount of knowledge already accumulated. 17. It is time to pause at this stage of the story to have the reader realize its significance for the evolution of physical thinking. 18. At that time the scientist reported to have observed an unusual luminescence during his experiments with cathode tubes.
Task 8.12. Translate the following into English.
1. Большинство ученых ожидает, что в ближайшие годы молекулярная биология сделает новые успехи. 2. Мы не смогли заставить его согласиться на изменение условий эксперимента. 3. Ваш руководитель хочет, чтобы вы сосредоточили свое внимание на одной задаче. 4. Я не ожидаю, что он извлечет из этого урок. 5. Он всегда первый берется за такие проблемы. 6. Желательно, чтобы эти измерения были проверены до начала новой серии опытов. 7. Мы часто видим, как биологи заимствуют методы не только у физиков, но и у химиков. 8. Мне трудно об этом спорить. 2. Им важно подкрепить теорию дополнительными экспериментальными данными. 3. Физикам важно поддерживать контакт с биологами. 4. Ребенку необходимо учиться на собственном опыте. 5. Нам часто трудно угадать, каким будет будущее. 6. Естественно, что на такой анализ затрачивается около года. 7. Необходимо, чтобы реакция была ускорена. 8. Чтобы две молекулы вступили в реакцию, они должны столкнуться.
Task 8.13. Identify the structures and give the Russian equivalents.
1. Science is known to affect the lives of people. 2. Molecular biology is expected to dominate other sciences. 3. The results of these experiments are found to overlap. 4. The data are assumed to correlate with the present theory. 5. Some people seem to be disappointed in science. 6. He happens to work at the same problem. 7. The work is likely to contribute to the solution of the problem. 8. He is sure to argue about it. 9. He is said to have graduated from Oxford University. He is said to avoid all sorts of arguments. 10. They seem to have taken advantage of the favorable conditions. He seems to mention the problem in the last chapter of his book. 11. He appeared to have lost interest in physics altogether. The story may appear to be oversimplified. 12. He is known to have established a school of his own. This scientist is known to be keeping in touch with the latest developments in his field of research. 13. He does not appear to be concerned with the problem. 14. He was not expected to spoil the sample. 15. The human body is not likely to tolerate such temperature. 16. He is not believed to represent the majority. 17. The idea does not seem to be remarkably advanced. 18. The discussion is not claimed to cover the whole range of present-day research.
Task 8.14. Identify the structures and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. On such occasions the scientist was looked upon as representing the scientific community. 2. From this point of view the study can be regarded as contributing to fundamental knowledge. 3. Practically, the problem can be considered as given up. 4. The theory was counted upon as correlating with all the existing data. 5. He was deeply disappointed with the final results which turned out to be not what he had expected. 6. Some scientists occupy themselves primarily with problems likely to have direct bearing on the lives of people. 7. The data found to correlate with more than one interpretation, they attempted to approach the problem from a different viewpoint. 8. The scientist reported to have spent five years on the problem finally gave it up. 9. The danger of oversimplifying the problem seeming (to be) quite real, they changed the line of their attack. 10. By that time younger people thought to be brilliant physicists had left the laboratory.
Task 8.15. Identify the structures and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. For scientific development to be of benefit for man, scientists must occupy themselves with problems that have direct bearing on our lives. 2. Molecular biologists are known to borrow their techniques from other sciences, mainly from physics. 3. How the application of his discovery will affect man is sometimes rather hard for the scientist to foresee. 4. The author devoted a special chapter of his book to what may be expected to dominate the science scene in the near future. 5. The method of inductive reasoning known to be established by Bacon leads from observation to general laws. 6. His idea was fruitful enough for others to take it up and develop it further. 7. For an original idea to be a product of one man's genius is quite natural. But for an idea to be transformed into a product, many people's effort is required. 8. Some people say that biology rather than physics is likely to be the central ground of scientific advance during the remainder of our century. 9. There appear no reasons for anybody to object to this style of research.
Task 9. Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
To speculate about the future is one of the most basic qualities of man. It involves two aspects: one is to forecast what the future development will be and the other is to determine in what approximate period of time it is going to take place. To make such a prognosis means to learn from the past experience and to extrapolate the knowledge into the future. Recently, however, the rate of change has been so great as to make it difficult to learn from experience, at least as far as the time factor is concerned. To take but one example, a prediction of man's possible landing on the Moon around the turn of the century was made as late as 1961, only 8 years before the actual event! So, to be on the safe side, we had better leave time to take care of itself, and concentrate our attention on what the future may be like. There is yet another problem involved: are we to accept submissively any possible course of events, or are we to work for a future most suited for most people? The choice is to be made, at different levels, by every individual and by every society.
What is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry or any other science? What are their special methods of thinking and acting? What qualities do we usually expect them to possess? To begin with, we expect a successful scientist to be full of curiosity - he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which have no satisfactory explanation, and his curiosity makes him look for the underlying relationships even if the data to be analysed are not apparently interrelated. He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective. Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows man to be the least reliable of scienrific instruments.
And to conclude, he is to be highly imaginative since he often looks for data which are not only complex, but also incomplete.
Task 9.1. Check up for comprehension.
1. What are the two aspects of speculation about the future? 2. What are the two steps of any prognosis? 3. Why has it been so difficult recently to make any predictions concerning the future development? 4. What example is cited to illustrate the difficulty? 5. Does the author make any suggestions concerning this difficulty? Why does he suggest this? 6. What dilemma are we faced with and what choice is to be made by every individual and every society? 7. What are Russian equivalents of: before the actual event, leave time to take care of itself, what the future may be like? 8. What qualities do we expect to find in a successful scientist? 9. Why do we say that a successful scientist is full of curiosity? 10. Why is it difficult to see the underlying relationships? 11. Why is he critical of his own work? 12. Why is it necessary for him to be highly imaginative? 13. Give a Russian equivalent of the title and of the data analysed and the data to be analysed.
Task 10. Read the text.
MODERN AGRICULTURE
If one looks at the basic structure of modem agriculture he/she is not likely (навряд ли) to find any dramatic changes in it. There are two main branches of agriculture - crop production and animal husbandry. Crop production is the practice of growing and harvesting crops. In order to obtain high yields crops are grown under favorable soil and climatic conditions. Animal husbandry is engaged in breeding of farm animals and their use. Dairy and beef cattle, hogs, ship and poultry are highly important sources of food for man. They help to get such nutritious products as meat, milk and eggs. Many crops grown by man are used for feeding livestock. At the same time manure produced by farm animals is an important source of the maintenance of soil fertility. Most of the nutrients, taken by plants are thus returned.
These two branches of agriculture are extremely important for national economy. It supplies people with food and clothing and industry with raw material. Countries like Japan, the USA and Canada support local farmers. They forbid the import of agricultural products from other countries and decrease the taxes imposed upon local farmers. Моrеоvеr, the state invests money into the intensification of agricultural production, which is based on mechanization, electrification and chemization. Preparation of soil, planting and harvesting crops, feeding farm animals and cleaning livestock buildings are mechanized. The use of chemical fertilizers increases crop yields and quality. Genetics helps much in the development of better high-yielding varieties of crops. Chemistry helps to control weeds, insects and diseases.
Transport a 195O's farmer through time and he would be flabergasted (потрясён). Everything has changed even the language. Phrases like "groundwater protection" and "electric fire control" would leave the 50's farmer scratching his head. Back then "environmental protection" meant putting a tin can over the tractors exhaust pipe. If earlier farm families took more people to do the work, present families tend to be smaller today but they produce twice as much as their counterparts from the 50's. It's not difficult to notice that today's farms are not only bigger, but have instant access to information around the world and the latest technologies in agriculture. Computers help much with everything from soil analysis to financial planning and farming is going to change even more in the years to come.
Task 13.1. Answer the questions:
1. What is the basic stracture of agriculture? 2. What are the two branches of agriculture engaged in? 3. How do the nutrients taken by the plants return into soil? 4. Is agriculture important for country's economy? Why? 5. What do the countries do to protect the fanners? Give your own examples. 6. What agricultural processes are mechanized? 7. What do the present day farms and the 1950's farms differ in?
Task 14. Read the text and be ready for a comprehension check-up
Useful words and words combinations:
feature - черта
tool - инструмент
to proceed investigations - продолжать исследования
device - прибор
to till the soil - обрабатывать землю
to perform - выполнять, совершать
cultural practices - агротехнические приемы
growing season - вегетационный период
tractor powered- приводимый в движение трактором
self-propelled- самоходный
silage unloaders - машины для разгрузки силоса
threshing machine - молотильная машина
drill - рядовая сеялка
root crop - корнеплоды
root lifter- уборочная машина для корнеплодов
potato digger - картофелекопалка
grain grinder - зернодробилка
feed mixer - кормосмеситель
forage cutter - корморезка
years to come - грядущие года
implement - орудие труда
to do without - обходиться без чего-либо
to he powered by - приводиться в действие
to be equipped with - быть оборудованным чем-либо
to provide smb. with smth - обеспечивать кого-то чем-либо
Task 14.1. Check-up for a comprehension
1) Какие операции может совершать техника в растениеводстве?
2) Какие машины являются самоходными, а какие нет?
3) Машины, используемых при сборе урожая.
4) Техника, используемая в животноводстве.
III PART
RESEARCH WORK
Structure of Research
Topic / Theme – Тема исследования
Relevance of the Topic (Motivation for the Study) – Актуальность темы исследования
Object of Research – Объект исследования
Subject of Research – Предмет исследования
Aims of Research – Цели исследования
Research Questions – Задачи исследования
Hypotheses of Research – Гипотезы исследования
Methods of Investigation – Методы исследования
Original Contribution – Новизна
Significance – Значимость
Implementations – Внедрения
Conclusions – Выводы
Useful Language
Topic / Theme of Research
| The theme of our investigation is … | Темой нашего исследования является … |
| The theme of our exploration is devoted to … | Тема нашего исследования посвящена … |
Object of Research
| We will make a thorough study of … | Мы подвергнем тщательному изучению … |
| The object of our exploration is … | Объектом исследования является … |
| The following study is concerned with … | Настоящее исследование посвящено … |
| At the heart of the discussion is … | В центре обсуждения находится … |
| The study of … raises several interesting problems of a general nature. | Изучение … поднимает несколько интересных проблем общего характера. |
| It requires a detailed study of … | Это требует детального изучения … |
| It requires a direct study of … | Это требует непосредственного изучения … |
| In the connection with the study of various phenomena it is necessary to … | В связи с изучением различных явлений необходимо … |
| Therefore, in studying … one must take into account … | Следовательно, при изучении … необходимо принять во внимание … |
| This is achieved by a comprehensive study of … | Это достигается путем всестороннего изучения … |
| We will deal with … | Мы рассмотрим … |
| We will examine the (relations between …) | Мы изучим (взаимосвязь … с …) |
| It would be instructive to examine in … detail … from the point of view of … | Было бы полезно детально изучить … с точки зрения … |
| We will explore … | Мы исследуем … |
| We are occupied with the problem of … | Мы занимаемся проблемой … |
Subject of Research
| The topic of our investigation (exploration, work) is … | Предметом нашего исследования является … | |
| It is one of the key problems of … | Это одна из основных проблем… | |
| The problem of … is very complex. | Проблема … является очень сложной. | |
| The question is not free from difficulties… | Вопрос не лишен сложности. | |
| The topic of my dissertation is significant in interpreting … | Тема моей диссертации существенна для понимания … | |
| The problem of … is in the focus of attention of … | Проблема … находится в центре внимания… | |
| The problem arises (is / was raised) in connection with … | Эта проблема встает (ставится/ ставилась) в связи с тем, что … | |
| The problem of studying … demands special care in using methods and a methodological concept. | Проблема изучения … требует особого внимания к использованию методов и методологической концепции. | |
| Here we need to consider the problem of … | Здесь нам необходимо рассмотреть проблему … | |
| Thus the core of the problem is … | Таким образом, суть проблемы заключается в … | |
| We turn our attention to a new and more urgent problem. | Мы обращаем наше внимание на новую и более насущную проблему. | |
| In this light we must face the problem … | С этой точки зрения мы должны рассмотреть проблему … | |
| Though many aspects of this problem are debated, it is sure that … | Хотя многие аспекты проблемы остаются спорными, несомненно, что … | |
| To bring further light on various aspects it is necessary to … | Для того, чтобы более глубоко осветить различные аспекты, необходимо … | |
| I will touch upon a question of … | Я коснусь вопроса … | |
| The question is usually regarded as… | Вопрос обычно рассматривается как … | |
| Not long ago the question was raised in … | Недавно вопрос был поднят в … | |
| The question raises all sorts of problems. | Этот вопрос поднимает разнообразные проблемы. |
Aims of Research
| The (main) aim of the paper is … | (Основная) цель данной работы заключается в … |
| To attain our aim we must consider … | Для достижения цели мы должны рассмотреть … |
| One of the chief aims was to test hypothesis … | Одной из основных целей … являлась проверка гипотезы … |
| It is the main aim of this chapter to examine some of the main causes of … | Задачей данной главы является изучение некоторых основных причин … |
| At present we do not set the aim of… | В настоящее время мы не ставим цели … |
| The overall goals of … require a prior concern with the general problem of … | Глобальные цели … требуют предварительного рассмотрения основных проблем … |
| In the framework of … the first objective to achieve is … | В рамках … основной целью является … |
| Our objective is the investigation of … | Нашей целью является изучение … |
| Our objective is to explain … | Нашей задачей является объяснение … |
| The purpose of our work is to examine and investigate and consequently to determine more precisely … | Цель нашей работы состоит в том, чтобы изучить и исследовать и в результате более точно определить … |
| For this purpose we may examine an example from … | Для этой цели можно проанализировать пример из … |
| It is our purpose on this occasion to analyze some of the basic issues … | Нашей целью в данном случае является анализ основных вопросов … |
| It is the purpose of this investigation to explain the principles of this viewpoint … | Целью данного исследования является объяснение основных положений данной концепции … |
| We are confined to immediate aims to … | Наши непосредственные цели заключаются в … |
| What we are aiming at is … | То, к чему мы стремимся, заключается в … |
Research Questions
| It has been no part of our aim to make a comprehensive survey of … | В наши задачи не входило проведение глобального исследования … |
| We are fully aware of the nature of the objective … | Мы в полной мере понимаем специфику данной задачи … |
| Our objective is the investigation of… | Задачей нашего исследования является … |
| It is not the business of … | Это не входит в задачи … |
| It is not our purpose to describe … | В нашу задачу не входит описание … |
| It is beyond our present purpose to … | В наши задачи не входит … |
| Our task consists in … | Наша задача состоит в том, чтобы … |
| Our task is to show … | Наша задача состоит в том, чтобы показать … |
| Our task is to study … | В нашу задачу входит изучение … |
| The main task is as follows … | Основная задача заключается в следующем … |
| For carrying out this task it is necessary … | Для осуществления этой задачи необходимо … |
| We are confronted with a complicated task. | Перед нами стоит сложная задача. |
| The primary task is to study … | Первоочередной задачей является изучение … |
| The task requires considerable rethinking and revision … | Эта задача требует переосмысления и пересмотра … |
| The detailed (comprehensive, thorough, careful, profound) study of … is of great importance. | Детальное (всестороннее, тщательное, глубокое) изучение … имеет большое значение. |
| Nevertheless, it is important to observe … | Тем не менее, важно изучить … |
| Comprehensive study of … is the key to solving our problems. | Всестороннее исследование … имеет особое значение для решения поставленных проблем. |
| Within the framework of the paper it is impossible to … | В рамках этой работы невозможно … |
| One of the first tasks was to verify and if possible to amplify knowledge of … | Одной из первостепенных задач являлась проверка и, по возможности расширение знаний о … |
Hypotheses of Research
| It is necessary to accept the hypothesis … | Необходимо принять гипотезу … |
| One may put forward a working hypothesis for explaining this phenomenon … | Можно выдвинуть рабочую гипотезу для объяснения этого явления … |
| To take all possibilities into account, we are compelled to rule out the hypothesis that … | Принимая во внимание все возможности, мы вынуждены выдвинуть гипотезу … |
| We are to form a working hypothesis about … | Мы должны сформулировать рабочую гипотезу о … |
| It may be assumed like a working hypothesis. | Это можно принять в качестве рабочей гипотезы. |
| For confirmation of the hypothesis we need but turn to a brief consideration of … | Для подтверждения гипотезы необходимо обратиться к краткому рассмотрению … |
| These data confirm our hypothesis. | Эти данные подтверждают нашу гипотезу. |
Methods of Investigation
| There are different approaches to the solution of the problem. | Существуют разные подходы к решению этой проблемы. |
| This approach is aimed at … | Этот метод направлен на … |
| The usual approach was followed in … | Традиционный метод использовался в … |
| The most promising approach is … | Наиболее перспективный метод состоит в том, чтобы … |
| The approach used here is … | Метод, используемый здесь, заключается в … |
| An important way of approaching the matter is … | Важный метод в разработке проблемы заключается в … |
| This is a reasonable and practical approach … | Это целесообразный и практический метод. |
| A modern approach to this problem of … is based on (consists in …) | Современный подход к проблеме … основан (состоит в …) … |
| At the present time this research approach rests on … | В настоящее время этот метод исследования основывается на … |
| Such an approach to … involves … | Такой подход к … требует … |
| The subjective approach to the study of … is … | Субъективный подход к изучению… заключается … |
| The main difference in the approaches is that … | Главное различие в подходах заключается в том, что … |
| The approach taken by … in … is quite similar to … | Метод исследования, принятый …, идентичен … |
| A different approach was taken by … | Иной метод был использован … |
| These approaches are different but … | Эти подходы различны, но … |
| The most common method for … is … | Самый распространенный метод … состоит в … |
| The method of research depends on … | Метод исследования зависит от … |
| A method of analogy will help to distinguish a few common features. | Сравнительный метод позволяет выделить общие черты … |
| Before we can begin to use this method of analysis we have to deal with … | Прежде чем мы начнем применять данный метод анализа, мы должны рассмотреть … |
| Our work is being carried out in the following directions … | Наша работа ведется в следующем направлении … |
| These are a number of trends in studying … | Существует ряд направлений в изучении … |
| The simplest way of solving this problem lies in … | Самый простой путь решения этой проблемы заключается в … |
| This is one of the ways … | Это один из способов … |
| The methods of analysis are … | Методами анализа являются … |
| The analysis of … is based on … | Анализ … основывается на … |
| With regard to the old analysis we can state … | Учитывая данные предыдущего анализа, можно утверждать, что … |
| It requires a thorough analysis. | Это требует тщательного анализа. |
| At this level of analysis everything is seen as … | На этом уровне анализа все рассматривается как … |
| To analyze with precision we must turn to … | Для того, чтобы провести точный анализ, мы должны обратиться к … |
| Before we proceed with our analysis of … it is essential to go over the problem on … | Прежде чем перейти к анализу … необходимо изучить проблему … |
| The conventional approach to this problem is based on … | Обычный подход к этой проблеме основан на … |
| Our approach is to study … | Наш метод заключается в изучении … |
Original Contribution
| It is the first attempt of the scientific approach to the problem of … | Это является первой попыткой использования научного подхода к проблеме … |
| he main features of our approach are … | Основными направлениями нашего подхода являются … |
| We have developed a new approach to the phenomena under consideration. | Мы разработали новый подход к рассматриваемым явлениям. |
| Our approach will make it possible to clear … up. | Наш подход позволит разобраться в … |
| We have succeeded in finding a convenient approach to … | Нам удалось найти удобный подход к … |
| We must approach the problem from viewpoint… | Мы должны подойти к проблеме с точки зрения … |
| Such an approach has made it possible to understand the reasons for … | Такой подход позволил понять причины … |
| Our approach may be summarized in the words of … | Наш подход можно изложить следующим образом … |
| The method proposed in this article (investigation) is … | Метод, предложенный в этой статье (исследовании) состоит в … |
| The method of research provides a reasonably objective criterion … | Такой метод исследования обеспечивает нас достаточно объективным критерием … |
| It is in keeping with the methods adopted to solve the problems of … | Это непосредственно связано с методами, разработанными для решения данной проблемы … |
| The method is based on the idea that … | Данный метод основывается на том, что … |
| The method provides an answer to this problem … | Этот метод дает возможность найти ответ на вопрос … |
| The advantage of this method lies in the fact that … | Преимущество этого метода состоит в том, что ... |
| This method has thrown light upon … | Данный метод пролил свет на … |
| We may adopt the method to … | Мы можем применять данный метод к … |
| The method is applicable to … | Метод используется для … |
| The application of the new method allows us to … | Применение нового метода позволяет нам … |
| This method can be applied to the study of … | Этот метод можно применить для изучения … |
| I am not suggesting that it is the only way … | Я не считаю, что это единственный способ … |
| There is nothing with which the analysis can be compared … | Этот анализ не имеет аналогов … |
Significance
| The question of great practical importance deals with … | Вопрос, имеющий большое практическое значение, заключается в … |
| A special significance attaches to … | Особое значение придается … |
| What is significant is … | Значительным является то, что … |
| In fact it is the first work of general synthesis in which complex problems of … are posed and given new answers … | Действительно, это первая обобщающая работа, в которой поставлены сложные проблемы … и даны новые ответы … |
| The problem raised by … assumed a place of first importance … | Проблема поднятая … приобрела первоочередное значение … |
| What is important is … | Важным является то, что … |
Conclusions
| A complex approach to the study of … allowed me not only to analyze precisely the materials but to reach specific conclusions, based on the analysis… | Комплексный подход к изучению … позволил мне не только тщательно проанализировать материал, но и на этой основе сделать выводы … |
| We must conclude that … | Подводя итог, отметим … Необходимо сделать вывод о том, что … |
| From this we can conclude … | Из этого мы можем сделать вывод |
| All this allows us to conclude … | Все это позв |