The Structure of Words. Means of Form-Building

Introduction to the Theory of Grammar

Grammar as part of language. Grammar as a linguistic discipline.

Parts of Grammar. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of grammatical

Units.

1. We should distinguish between language as an abstract system of signs (meaningful units) and .speech as the use of language in the process of communication. Language and speech are interconnected. Language functions in speech. Speech is the manifestation of language.

The system of language is constituted by 3 subsystems: phonetics, vocabulary, grammar. Grammar may be defined as a system of word changing and other means of expressing relations of words in_the_sentence. The 3 constituent parts of language are studied by the corresponding linguistic disciplines: phonology, lexicology, grammar.

Grammar as a linguistic discipline may be practical (descriptive, normative) or theoretical. Practical Grammar describes the grammatical system of a given language. Theoretical Grammar gives a scientific explanation of the nature and peculiarities of the grammatical system of the language.

Modern English, as distinct from Modern Russian, is a language of analytical structure. Relations of words in the sentence are expressed mainly by the positions of words or by special form-words. The main means of expressing syntactic relations in Russian (a language of synthetic structure) is the system of word changing.

2. Main units of Grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided into morphemes, a sentence may be divided into phrases (word-groups). A morpheme, a word, a phrase and a sentence are units of different levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level consists of one or more units of a lower level.

Grammatical units enter into two types of relations: in the language system (paradigmatic relations) and in speech (syntagmatic relations).

In the language system each unit is included into a set of connections based on different properties. For example, word forms child, children, child's, children's have the same lexical meaning and have different grammatical meanings. They constitute a lexeme.

Word-forms children, boys, men, books... have the same grammatical meaning and have different lexical meanings. They constitute a grammeme (a categorial form, a form class).

The system of all grammemes (grammatical forms) of all lexemes (words) of a given class constitutes a paradigm.

Syntagmatic relations are the relations in an utterance:

I like children.

Main grammatical units, a word and a sentence, are studied by different sections of Grammar: Morphology (Accidence) and Syntax. Morphology studies the structure, forms and the classification of words. Syntax studies the structure, forms and the classification of sentences. In other words, Morphology studies paradigmatic relations of words, Syntax studies syntagmatic relations of words and paradigmatic relations of sentences.

There is also a new approach to the division of Grammar into Morphology and Syntax. According to this approach Morphology should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of words. Syntax should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of sentences.

Syntactic syntagmatics is a relatively new field of study, reflecting the functional approach to language, i.e. the description of connected speech, or discourse.

TOPIC II

Main Notions of Grammar

Grammatical meaning, grammatical form.

Grammatical category.

1. The basic notions of Grammar are the grammatical meaning, the grammatical form and the grammatical category.

The grammatical meaning is a general, abstract meaning which embraces classes of words.

The grammatical meaning depends on the lexical meaning and is connected with objective reality indirectly, through the lexical meaning.

The grammatical meaning is relative, it is revealed in relations of word forms: speak — speaks.

The grammatical meaning is obligatory. Grammatical meaning must be expressed if the speaker wants to be understood.

The grammatical meaning must have a grammatical form of expression (inflexions, analytical forms, word-order, etc.). Compare the word forms walks, is writing. Both forms denote process, but only the second form expresses it grammatically.

The term, form _ may be used in a wide sense lo denote all means of expressing grammatical meanings. It may be also used in a narrow sense to denote means of .expressing a particular grammatical meaning (plural, number, present tense, etc.).

Grammatical elements are unities of meaning and form, content and expression. In the language system there is no direct correspondence of meaning and form. Two or more units of the plane of content may correspond to one unit of the plane of expression (polysemy; homonymy). Two or more units of the plane of expression may correspond to one unit of the plane of content (synonymy).

2. In the system of language grammatical elements are connected on the basis of similarity and contrast.

Partially similar elements, i.e. elements having common and distinctive features, constitute oppositions: goes — went, table — tables, good — better - best). Consider the opposition table — tables. Members of the opposition

differ in form and have different grammatical meanings (singular and plural). At the same time they express the same general meaning — number.

The unity of the general meaning and its particular manifestations which is revealed through the opposition of forms is a grammatical category. There may be different definitions of the category laying stress either on its notional or formal aspect. But the category jixists only if there is an opposition of at least two forms. If there is one form, there is no category.

The minimal (two-member) opposition is called binary.

Oppositions may be of three main types:

1) privative. One member has a certain distinctive feature. This member is called marked, or strong (+). The other member is characterized by the absence of this distinctive feature. This member is called unmarked, or•weak (-):

speak ^- — speaks+

2) equipollent. Both members of the opposition are marked:

am+ — is+

3) gradual. Members of the opposition differ by the degree of certain property:

good — better — best Most grammatical oppositions are privative.

The marked (strong) member has a narrow and definite meaning. The unmarked (weak) member has a wide, general meaning.

Grammatical forms express meanings of different categories. The form goes denotes present tense, 3rd person, singular number, indicative mood, active voice, etc.

These meanings are revealed in different oppositions :

/ is going

goes — went

\ has gone.

But grammatical forms cannot express different meanings of the same category. So if a grammatical fonn has two or more meanings, they belong to different categories.

In certain contexts the difference between members of the opposition is lost, the opposition is reduced to one member. Usually the weak member acquires the meaning of the strong member: We leave for Moscow tomorrow.

This kind of oppositional reduction is called neutralization.

On the other hand, the strong member may be used in the context typical for the weak member. This use is stylistically marked: He is always complaining.

This kind of reduction is called transposition.

Grammatical categories reflect phenomena of objective reality. Thus the category of number in nouns reflects the essential properties of noun-referents. Such categories may be called notional, or referential. Other categories reflect peculiarities of the grammatical structure of the language (number in verbs). Such categories may be called formal or relational.

Besides grammatical, or inflexional categories, based on the oppositions of forms, there are categories, based on the oppositions of classes of words. Such categories are called lexico-g-amnmtical, or selective. Compare:

стол — доска — окно

большой — большая — большое

The formal difference between members of a lexico-grammatical opposition is shown syntagmatically: большой стол.

Grammatical categories may be influenced by the lexical meaning. Such categories as number, case, voice strongly depend on the lexical meaning. They are proper to certain subclasses of words. Thus, only objective verbs have the voice opposition, subjective verbs have only one form, that of the weak member of the opposition. Other categories (tense, mood) are more abstract. They cover all words of a class.

As grammatical categories reflect relations existing in objective reality, different languages may have the same categories. But the system and character of grammatical categories are determined by the grammatical structure of a given language.

TOPIC III

The Structure of Words. Means of Form-Building