The problem of criteria of synonymy

Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. The most controversial among these is the problem of criteria of synonymy. We are still not certain which words should correctly be considered as synonyms.

1) Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual criterionand defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

Some aspects of this definition have been critisized. It has been pointed out that linguistic phenomena should be defined in linguistic terms and that the use of the term concept makes this an extralinguistic definition.

2) In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterionis frequently used.In terms of componential analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing in connotations, or in connotative components.

A group of synonyms may be studied with the help of their dictionary definitions (definitional analysis). In this work the data from various dictionaries are analysed comparatively. After that the definitions are subjected to transformational operations (transformational analysis).In this way, the semantic components of each analysed word are singled out.

Let us consider the results of the definitional and transformational analysis of some of the numerous synonyms for the verb to look.

	Denotation Connotations
to stare:	to look + steadily, lastingly + in surprise, curiosity
to glare:	to look + steadily, lastingly + in anger, rage, fury
to gaze:	to look + steadily, lastingly + in tenderness, admiration, wonder
to glance:	to look + briefly, in passing
to peep:	to look + quickly, secretly + by stealth; through an opening
to peer:	to look + steadily, lastingly + with difficulty or strain

The common denotation to look shows that, according to the semantic criterion, the words grouped in the table: to stare, to glare, to glance, to peep (to look quickly and secretly at sth), to peer (to look closely or carefully at sth) are synonyms. The connotative components: steadily, lastingly, briefly, in surprise, in anger, etc.highlight their differentiations.

3) In modern research on synonyms the criterion of interchangeabilityis sometimes applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning.

This criterion of interchangeability has been much criticized. Almost every attempt to apply it to this or that group of synonyms seems to lead one to the inevitable conclusion that either there are very few synonyms or that they are not interchangeable. It is sufficient to choose any set of synonyms placing them in a simple context to demonstrate the point. Confer: glare – gaze – glance – peer.

Consequently, it is difficult to accept interchangeability as a criterion of synonymy because the specific characteristic of synonyms is that they are not, cannot and should not be interchangeable, in which case they would simply become useless ballast in the vocabulary.

All this does not mean that no synonyms are interchangeable. One can find whole groups of words which can readily be substituted one for another. The same girl can be described as pretty, good-looking, handsome or beautiful. Yet, even these wordsare far from being totally interchangeable.

In conclusion, let us stress that even if there are some synonyms which areinterchangeable, it is quite certain that there are also others which are not. A criterion should be applicable to all synonyms and not just to some of them.

The dominant synonym

All (or, at least, most) synonymic groups have a “central” word whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group. This word is called the dominant synonym.

Here are examples of some dominant synonyms with their groups:

To tremble –to shiver – to shudder – to shake.

To make– to produce –to create – to fabricate – to manufacture.

Angry –furious – enraged.

The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent. Its meaning, which is broad and generalized, more or less “covers” the meanings of the rest of the synonyms, so that it may be substituted for any of them. It seems that here the idea of interchangeability of synonymscomes into its own. And yet, each such substitution would mean an irreparable loss of the additional information supplied by connotative components of each synonym. So, using to look instead of to glare, to stare, to peep we preserve the general sense of the utterance but lose a great deal of precision, expressiveness and colour.

Summing up what has been said, the following characteristic features of the dominant synonym can be underlined:

I.High frequency of usage.

II.Broad combinability, i.e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words.

III.Broad general meaning.

IV.Lack of connotations. (This goes for stylistic connotations as well, so that neutrality as to style is also a typical feature of the dominant synonym).