A) The word is a unit of speech used for the purpose of human communication. Thus, the word can be defined as a unit of communication

b) We can define the word as a linguistic phenomenon. (Arnold, p.9 – definition). A word therefore is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.

2(p 7)

3irresistible[z] ir-re-sist-ible 1) external structure –its morphological structure; the prefixes ir – re; the root – sist; the adjective forming suffix – ible; 2) internal structure –its meaning: so strong that it cannot be stopped or resisted: His arguments were irresistible.

5 blackboard –as a unity – a large board with a smooth black surface that teachers write on with a piece of chalk.

Lecture 2

Informal Style

(pp. 12 – 26)

1. Functional style.

2. Informal style.

3. Colloquial words.

4. Slang.

5. Dialect words.

Functional style

Thesocial context in which the communication is taking place determines the modes of speech. When placed in different situations, people instinctively choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thoughts. The suitability or unsuitability of a word for each particular situation depends on its stylistic characteristics or, in other words, on the functional style it represents. Professor I.V. Arnold defines it as “a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication”.

By the sphere of communication we mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an intimate letter, a speech in court, etc.

All these circumstances or situations can be classified into two types: formal(a lecture, a speech in court, an official letter, professional communication) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter).

Accordingly, functional styles are classified into two groups, with further subdivisions depending on different situations.

Informal style

Informal vocabulary is used in one’s immediate circle: family, relatives, or friends. One uses informal words when at home or feeling at home.

Informal style is relaxed, free-and-easy and familiar. But it should be pointed out that the informal talk of well-educated people considerably differs from that of the illiterate or the semi-educated; the choice of words with adults is different from the vocabulary of teenagers; people living in the provinces use certain regional words and expressions. Consequently, the choice of words is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the speaker’s educational and cultural background, age group, and his occupational and regional characteristics.

Informal words and word-groups are divided into three types: colloquial, slanganddialect words and word-groups.

Colloquial words

Among other informal words, colloquialismsare used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of literary colloquial words. These are informal words that are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. The sphere of communication of literary colloquial words also include the printed page.

Vast use of informal words is one of the prominent features of 20th century English and American literature. It is quite natural that informal words appear in dialogues in which they realistically reflect the speech of modern people.

However, in modern fiction informal words are not restricted to conversation in their use, but frequently appear in descriptive passages as well. In this way the narrative is endowed with conversational features. The author creates an intimate, warm, informal atmosphere.

“Fred Hardy was a bad lot (пользовался дурной славой). Pretty women and

an unlucky knack for backing the wrong horse had landed him in the

bankruptcy court by the time he was twenty-five…” (From W.S. Maugham).

Here are some more examples of literary colloquial words. Pal (кореш, друг) and chum (приятель, дружок) are colloquial equivalents of friend; girl, when used colloquially, denotes a woman of any age; bite and snack (quick meal – перекусить) stand for meal; hi, hello are informal greetings, and so long a form of parting; start, go on, finish and be through (покончить) are also literary colloquialisms.

A considerable number of shortenings are found among words of this type. E.g. pram, exam, fridge, flu, zip, movie.

Verbs with post-positional adverbs are also numerous among colloquialisms: put up, put over, make up, make out, turn up, etc.

Literary colloquial wordsare to be distinguished from familiar colloquialandlow colloquial.

The borderline between the literary and familiar colloquial is not always clearly marked. Yet the circle of speakers using familiar colloquial is more limited: these words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated. This vocabulary group closely verges on slang and has something of its coarse flavour.

E.g. doc (for doctor), ta-ta (for good-bye), to kid smb.(for tease, banter – подшутить), to pick up smb. (for make a qick and easy acquaintance), shut up (for keep silent).

Low colloquial(просторечие) is defined as uses characteristic of the speech of persons who may be broadly described as uncultivated. This group is stocked with words of illiterate (неграмотный) English which do not present much interest for our purposes.

The problem of functional styles is not one of purely theoretical interest, but represents a particularly important aspect of the language-learning process. Students often misunderstand the term “colloquial”and use it for “conversational”.The marker “colloquial”is a sign of restricted usage – not in formal circumstancesor in reports. But literary colloquial words should be included in functional vocabulary, presented and drilled in suitable contexts and situations, mainly in dialogues. It is important to associate these words with informal, relaxed situations.

Slang

The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as “language of a highly colloquial style, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”

All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind or amusing joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a coarse, mocking, cynical colouring.

Then why do people use slang?

For a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and, above all, different from others. To demonstrate one’s spiritual independence and daring. To sound “modern” and “up-to-date”.

It doesn’t mean that all these aims are achieved by using slang. But these are the main reasons for using it.

The circle of users of slang is more narrow than that of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young and uneducated.

Dialect words

Dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. England is a small country, yet it has many dialects which have their own distinctive features (e.g. the Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Norfolk dialects).

So dialects are regional forms of English. Standard English is defined as the language as it is written and spoken by literate people in both formal and informal usage and that is universally current while incorporating regional differences.

Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, i.e. words which are not stylistically marked and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary language. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words. Some examples of dialects: tha (thee) – the objective case of thou; brass – money; nivver – never; nowt – nothing.

Answer these questions.

1. What determines the choice of stylistically marked words in each particular situation?

2. In what situations are informal words used?

3. What are the main kinds of informal words? Give a brief description of each group.

4. What is the difference between colloquialisms and slang? What are their common features? Illustrate your answer with examples.

5. What are the main features of dialect words?

Colloquial words. Examples with translations(pp. 14-15)

p. 14 some sort ofвроде бы в

put sb. throughдоставать, мучить

keep upпродолжать

cope withсправиться

stuffдело

chuck = give upбросить

a bad lot(old-fashioned) – a dishonest person плохая репутация,дурная слава

knack for backing = knackумение, сноровка;unlucky knackневезение; back

the wrong horse(idiom)поставить не на ту лошадь (т.е. ошибиться, сделать

плохой выбор, просчитаться)

landed him in = to land sb in sth(informal) – to get sb into a difficult situationbankruptcy courtсуд по делам о несостоятельности

to have a good timeхорошо проводить время

ups and downs(of fortune) взлёты и падения; превратности судьбы

damn itчёрт возьми/подери

old buffer (bloke, card, codger)(пренебрежительно) старыйхрыч, старикашка peg outвыдохнуться, выйти из игры

by George!Чёрт возьми! Ей богу!

p.15 to be through:She was through with him – она покончила с ним

put up: 1поднять – Put your hands up! 2to show a particular level of skill: The team

put up a great performance – played very well

put overпередавать

Slang: Examples(pp. 17-18)

Slangсленг – это разговорный или фамильярный стиль речи в определённой области. Арнольд И.В.: Слeнг – сугубо разговорные слова и выражения с грубоватой или шуточной эмоциональной окраской, непринятые в литературной речи.

once in a blue moonphr. в кои-то века, раз в год по обещанию

white elephantобременительноеили разорительное имущество;обуза; подарок,

от которого не знаешь как избавиться [король Сиама, желая разорить кого-либо

из своих подданных, дарил ему священного белого слона, содержание которого

обходилось очень дорого]: Duddley doesn’t want the house, it always has been a

white elephant.

your tongue has run away with youвы не знаете, что говорите; давать волю

своему языку

dogs(for feet)ноги; dogболее 20 значений в Oxford Dictionary:1дрянь, барахло

(о товаре и т.п.); 2халтура; 3 страшилище (о женщине); 10проститутка;13

ступня

mug(for face)– рожа, морда

to leg(for to walk)

saucers, blinkers(for eyes) – моргала

trap(for mouth, e.g. Keep your trap shut! – Закрой хлебало!)

a lid(for a hat)– шляпа

a nut(for a head)– голова

a flipper(for a hand) – рука

Vocabulary

ambiguousnessдвусмысленность

arrestпривлечь внимание

bankruptcy courtсуд по делам о несостоятельности

catchingпривлекательный

colloquialismsпросторечные, нелитературные слова

connotationассоциация, побочное значение

current wordsобщеупотребительные слова

daringвызов

do away with sb(informal, phr. v) убить кого-л.; покончить с чем-л.: He thinks it’s

time we did away with the monarchy.

endowнаделять

familiar colloquial wordsфамильярно-бытовые слова

formalкнижный, официальный

free-and-easyнепринуждённый

functional styleфункциональный стиль: Система средств выражения,

характерная для специфической среды общения.

hackneyedбанальный

illiterateнеграмотный

immediateблизкий

informalразговорный

intimate letterличное письмо

jocularшутливый

literary colloquialобщелитературный

low colloquialпросторечие

make out:make out a cheque – выписать чек; ~ a report – составить отчёт;

(informal): How did he make out (справился) while his wife was away?

make up 1(complete) make up the complement – составить команду, группу; 2

(pay) доплачивать;3(repay) возместить;4make up one’s mind – решать; 5 (with

cosmetics) краситься

picturesqueкалоритный

put inпретворяться в

relaxedсвободный, простой

rootпревратиться

Standard Englishлитературный /нормативныйанглийский язык

strikeпроизводить впечатление

tediumскука

turn inсдать, сдавать: He turned himself in to the police.

turn up 1to be found, especially by chance, after being lost: Don’t worry about the letter – I’m sure it’ll turn up. 2(of a person) to arrive: We arranged to meet at 7.30, but she never turned up.

Lecture 3

Formal Style

(pp. 27-43)

1. Learned words.

2. Archaic and obsolete words.

3. Professional terminology.

4. Basic vocabulary.

Learned words

Formal style is restricted to formal situations. In general, formal words fall into two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a less exclusive group of so-called learned words.

These words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and fiction find their main resources.

We find here numerous words that are used in scientific prose and can be identified by their dry, matter-of-fact flavour (e.g. comprise, experimental, heterogeneous, homogeneous, conclusive, divergent, etc).

To this group also belongs so-called ‘officialese’(канцеляризмы). These are the words of the official, bureaucratic language. They should be avoided in speech and in print, e.g. assist (for help), endeavour (for try), proceed (for go), approximately (for about), sufficient (for enough), inquire (for ask).

Probably the most interesting subdivision of learned words is represented by the words found in descriptive passages of fiction. These words, which may be called ‘literary’, also have a particular flavour of their own, usually described as ‘refined’. They are mostly polysyllabic words drawn from the Romance language and, though fully adapted to the English phonetic system, some of them continue to sound singularly foreign. Here are some examples: solitude=loneless, lonely place (уединение, одиночество), sentiment=feeling (чувство), fascination=strong attraction (очарование, обаяние), delusion (заблуждение), meditation (размышление), cordial=friendly (сердечный, радушный).

There is one further subdivision of learned words: modes of poetic diction.These stand close to the previous group many words from which, in fact, belong to both these categories. Yet, poetic words have a further characteristic – a lofty, sometimes archaic, colouring: “Alas! (увы) theyhad been friends in youth;

But wispering tongues can poison truth

And constancy (постоянство) lives in realms (царства) above;

And life is thorny; and youth is vain…

Though learned words are mainly associated with the printed page, this is not exclusively so. Any educated English-speaking individual is sure to use many learned words not only in his formal letters and professional communication but also in his everyday speech. Educated people in both modern fiction and real life use learned words quite naturally and their speech is richer for it.

On the other hand, excessive use of learned words in conversational speech presents grave hazards. Utterances overloaded with such words have pretensions of ‘refinement’ and ‘elegance’ but achieve the exact opposite verging on the absurd and ridiculous.

Writers use this phenomenon for stylistic purposes. When a character in a book or in a play uses too many learned words, the obvious inappropriateness of his speech in an informal situation produces a comic effect.

However any suggestion that learned words are suitable only for comic purposes, would be quite wrong. It is in this vocabulary stratum that writers and poets find their most vivid paints and colours, and not only their humorous effects. Without knowing some learned words, it is even impossible to read fiction (not to mention scientific articles) or to listen to lectures in the foreign language.

It is also true that some of these words should be carefully selected and “activized” to become part of the students’ functional vocabulary.