The object of stylistics according to Galperin.

He identifies (выделяет) the following fields of investigation (objects):

v Expressive means of a language – выразительные средства

v A system of special devices, which are called stylistic devices - приёмы

v The system of functional styles of a language

v The aesthetic (эстетическая) function of a language

v Emotional coloring (эмоциональная окраска) of a language

v The individual manner of an author in making use of a language (в использовании языка).

Skrebnev in his works treats the objects closely (подробно) to determine (определяет) what impact (effect) (влияние, эффект) all of them have on the subject of stylistics. He comes to the conclusion that none of them (ни один взятый)separately is not entirely (целиком, полностью) acceptable, because each of them contains (содержит) only some information on style and stylistics. So, the object of stylistics is versatile (многосторонний) and multidimensional(многогранный). So, the tasks, the aims of stylistics are oriented at the study (на изучение) and investigation (исследование) of the object of stylistics of its totality (во всей совокупности, многогранности).

Brunches of Stylistics.

1. Lingua stylistics (лингвистическая). Literary (литературная) stylistics.

They have the common object of research, both study the common ground (общие основы) of the literary language from the point of view of its variability (изменчивости), the idiolect is an individual manner of a speaker or writer (у каждого сой язык, свой диалект).

There are some differences between Lingua stylistics and Literary stylistics in the following:

· Lingua Stylistics studies functional styles, synchronically (срез одного века)and diachronically (изучается один объект на всём промежутке всего развития языкового явления).

· Lingua Stylistics studies the linguistic nature (языковую природу) of the expressive means of the language and stylistic devices their systematic character and functions.

· Literary stylistics studies the composition of a work of art (художественное произведение)

· Literary stylistics studies different literature genres.

· Literary stylistics studies writers messages (идея, послание)

Comparative Stylistics.

It is concerned with a contrastive study of more than one language. It analyses the stylistics rеsources (стилистические ресурсы) at the crossroads (на пересечении) of two languages or literatures and it is connected with the theory of translation.

Decoding Stylistics.

It is a comparatively new brunch of stylistics traces (истоки, следы) of it we can find in the works (в работах) of Sherba and Jacobson. A serious contribution (серьёзный вклад) was made by Arnold I.V. It's connected (связана) with the theory of information (теорией информации). In terms of theory of information the author's stylistics may be named "the stylistics of encoder "(стилистика информатора). The language is viewed (рассматривается) as (как) a code (код) to shape the information into the message. The supplier (поставщик) of this information is the encoder (шифровщик). The addressee (адресат) is the decoder (дешифровщик) of the information contained (содержащейся) in the message. Analyzing the text from the encoder's point of view we should consider the epoch (эпоху), the historical situation, the personal, political, social and aesthetic views of the encoder.

If we treat the information in the text from the decoder's point of view we should get the maximum information from the text itself. So, decoding stylistics deals with the problems connected with adequate reception (адекватное восприятие) of the message without any informational losses (потерь) or deformations.

Functional Stylistics.

It is a brunch of lingua stylistics and studies functional styles. It is the most global trend (направление) in style study. The attention of functional stylistics is focused on the message in its correlation with the communicative situation.

5. Stylistics Phonetics (Phonostylistics) фоностилистика

It studies the style forming (стилеобразующие) features (черты) of the text from the text from the phonological point of view.

Stylistic Lexicology.

It studies the semantic structure of the word and the word and the interrelation (взаимосвязь) of the connotative (коннотативного) and denotative (денотативного, основного) meanings (значений) of the word and the interrelation of the stylistic connotations of the word and the context.

Stylistic Grammar.

Stylistic morphology investigates stylistic potential of specific grammatical forms and categories. (Например, если время Present Continuous употребляется вместо Present Indefinite, то таким образом выражено негативное отношение говорящего к описываемому действию – то есть время стилистически окрашено.)

Stylistic syntax deals with the expressive order of words, types of syntactic links (связи) and figures(фигуры- например, инверсия) of speech.

Stylistic Semasiology.

It is the study of the semantics (семантические) of language units in different sub-languages proceeding (следуя) from form to meaning (от формы к значению).

e.g. He was in a black mood – употреблён в форме метафорического эпитета в значении “sad”.

9. Stylistic Onomasiology (The Name Theory) теория наименования

It is the study of choice of words, phrases, sentences to be used to characterize a certain object in the text proceeding ( исходя) from context (meaning) to form (от значения к форме).

Например, автор описывает персонаж, о котором нужно сказать, что он красивый (это значение), и он ищет точное слово для описания красоты (то есть ищет нужную форму).

The Notion of Context.

Contextual analysis is based on the assumption (утверждении) that difference in meaning of linguistic units is indicated by difference in environment (окружение).

Amosova suggests the following definition of a context: CONTEXT is a combination of an indicator (индикатор) and the dependant. The dependant is the word whose meaning is to be rendered in a given utterance.

According to Arnold there are the following types of context:

1. The lexical context (the indicating power belongs to different lexemes)
e.g. black - denotes colour when used with material or things, it denotes a feeling which is sad/gloomy (унылый) when used with the nouns denoting emotions or thoughts.

black - dependant dress - indicator

2. Syntactical context (the indicating power belongs to the syntactic pattern (модель) which is made of words)

e.g. make(v) - means to cause (заставить) when followed by a complex object

3. Mixed context

e.g. late(adj) - when used attributively with words denoting periods of time means towards the end of the period – late (позднее, не опоздавшее) summer

The definition of context pre-supposes (предполагает) some other classifications. Eugene Nida distinguishes linguistic and practical contexts by the latter he means the circumstances of communication that is

the motive (мотив),

the participants (участники),

the relations between them,

the situation.

Kolshansky point out to a broader context and the narrower( более широкий и более узкий контексты).

The context is a set (набор) of circumstances (обстоятельств) and conditions(условий) accompanying (сопровождающих) word usage (словоупотребление).

The peculiarity(особенность) of the stylistic context is that functions to enrich (обогатить) the semantic structure of words, to add to their meanings, so it is contrary (противоречит) to the functions of lexical and syntactical contexts.

(Например, говоря о погоде, можно сказать что она была плохая, употребив предложение “The weather was ‘fine’”.)

The Notion of the Norm.

Most scholars define style as deviation (отклонение) from lingual norm. The notion of norm presupposes a recognized standard, that is the given national language - the literary norm. But other scholars (Skrebnev) claims (заявляет) that there are as many norms as there are sub-languages within the national language (в каждом подъязыке).

In terms of stylistics it would be more appropriate (было бы более уместно) to use the notion of neutrality (нейтральность) for denoting the norm. The units belonging to all sub-languages are stylistically neutral (стилистически нейтральны). So, we observe stylistically colored and stylistically neutral words.

Convergence (схождение)

That is concentration in one place of a text a cluster of stylistic devices & expressive means performing one and the same function. A stylistic device ( приём) is not attached (не привязан) to this or that (к какому-то одному) stylistic effect. The quality of a device enables (заставляет) the author to use different devices for the same purpose. This redundancy (избыточность, концентрация) encores (обеспечивает) the delivery of the authors idea.

e.g. When he blinks a parrot-like look appears, the look of some heavily blinking tropical bird. (Здесь употреблено три приёма: сравнение parrot-like, повтор like и эпитеты heavily blinking tropical.)

Coupling (сцепление)

it is the recurrence (встречаемость, повторяемость) of the similar elements of the text in similar positions which provides a unity of a poetic structure, for example, in verses that is rhyme (рифма), rhythm (ритм)& parallel constructions.

Expressive connotation.

It either increases (увеличивает) or decreases (уменьшает) expressiveness of the message.

e.g. splendid, magnificent.

They are all used colloquially as the terms of exuberation.
We often come across words which have 2 or 3 types (even 4) at one. For example, the word beasty(стилистически – разговорное, эмоция – отрицательная, оценка – неодобрение, экспрессия – преувеличение).

TOPIC 4 Stylistic Classification of English Vocabulary.

Terms

They are any word or word-group used to name a notion, characteristic of some special field of knowledge, industry or culture. They may be popular terms known to the public at large (известны широкой публике) (e.g. medical terms) and those used exclusively within a profession (e.g. linguistic terms).

Barbarisms.

They are words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way and for which there are corresponding English equivalents.

For example: Chiao!

They have become facts of the language and fixed in dictionaries.

5. Foreignisms (иностранные). They are words of foreign origin that have not been assimilated into English and they do not belong to the word-stock of the English language. e.g. Bonmot (удачное выражение). Они не принадлежат к словарному составу и не зафиксированы в словарях.

6. Neologisms. They are newly (вновь) coined (созданные) word or phrase or a new meaning for an existing word or a word, borrowed from another language. Neologisms are words and expressions crated for new things irrespective (независимо) of their scale (масштаб, величина) of importance. В определении неологизма основной фактор временной. Например, слово перестройка уже давно не неологизм, а, скорее, историзм

7. Nonce-words (окказиональные). They are words coined for one occasion. They are individual neologisms, created after the existing (существующие) word-building (словообразовательные) patterns (модели) for stylistic purpose & having (имеют) value (значение) for the given (в данном) text (тексте).