Synonyms: are their meanings the same or different?

(1) Synonymy - controversial problem. Existence, nature & essence of the relationships of synonyms– disputed, debated & treated in different ways by different linguists.

(2)"I have always liked you very much, I admire your talent, but, forgive me, — I could never love you as a wife should love her husband."

(From The Shivering Sands by V. Holt)

like

feelings of attraction, admire BUT like ←→ love

approbation, fondness love ↑

opposed to each other

↓

"I like you, i. e. I have certain warm feelings towards you, but they are not

strong enough for me to describe them as "love"

(3) Duality – the most confusing feature of synonyms → they reveal different aspects, shades and variations of the same phenomenon:

"— Was she a pretty girl?

— I would certainly have called her attractive." (Ibid.)

↑

more precise

= not pretty, only attractive

↑

opposition based on sameness: they both describe a pleasant appearance

(4)synonyms add precision to each detail of description => correct choice of a word from a group of synonyms may colour the whole text:

1) During a domestic quarrel the infuriated husband shouts and glares at his wife, but "his glare suddenly softened into a gaze as he turned his eyes on the little girl" ↑

↑ looking furiously at his wife he

looked at his daughter with tenderness

2) "Neighbours were apt to smile at the long-legged bare-headed young man leisurely strolling along the street and his small companion demurely trotting by his side."

(From Some Men and Women by B. Lowndes)

two different stroll - long slow paces

styles of walking trot - the gait between a walk and a run

3) an irritated producer is talking to an ambitious young actor:

"Think you can play Romeo? Romeo should smile, not grin, walk, not swagger, speak his lines, not mumble them."

(Ibid.)

smile ←→ grin - a broader and a rather foolish smile

walk ←→ swagger - to walk in a defiant or insolent manner

speak ←→ mumble - speaking indistinctly or unintelligibly

↑

opposition, although they mean more or less the same

(5) Synonyms - one of the most important expressive means; the principal function - to represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations.

(6) Using synonyms for stylistic purposes:

The description of a group of survivors painfully retreating after a defeat in battle:

"... The Frontshires [name of battalion] staggered rather than walked down the bumpy trench ... About fifty men, the flotsam of the wrecked battalion stumbled past them .... They shambled heavily along, not keeping step or attempting to, bent wearily forward under the weight of their equipment, their unseeing eyes turned to the muddy ground." (From Death of a Hero by R. Aldington)

walk - merely convey the bare idea of going on foot

connote the manner stagger - "to sway while walking"

of walking stumble - "to walk tripping over uneven ground and nearly falling"

+ connotes a - shamble - implies dragging one's feet while walking

physical effort

=> a vivid picture of exhausted, broken men marching from the battle-field → the general atmosphere of defeat and hopelessness

(7)Mark Twain: “The difference between the right word and just the right word is the difference between the lightning and the lightning-bug”.

=> The skill to choose the most suitable word in every context & every situation is an essential part of the language learning process. It’s important both to discern the various connotations in the meanings of synonyms and to choose the word appropriate to each context.

Criteria of Synonymy

(8)Synonymy ← some theoretical problems = an object of controversy, the most controversial being the problem of criteria of synonymy = which words are synonyms & what are the characteristic features which qualify 2 or more words as synonyms.

(9)Traditional linguistics: conceptual criterion => synonyms = words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

Arguments: 1) linguistic phenomena should be defined in linguistic terms (term

“concept” ► extralinguistic definition)

2) term "shades of meaning" - condemned for its vagueness and

lack of precision

(10) Modern linguistics: semantic criterion => in terms of componential analysis synonyms = words with the same denotation (the same denotative component), but differing in connotations (connotative components).

↑

this approach has its advantages and suggests certain new methods of analysing synonyms:

1) A group of synonyms may be studied with the help of their dictionary definitions (definitional analysis), the data from various dictionaries are analysed comparatively.

2) After that the definitions are subjected to transformational operations (transformational analysis), the semantic components of each analysed word are singled out:

e.g. the results of the definitional and transformational analysis of some of the numerous synonyms for the verb to look:

Denotation Connotation

to stare to look + steadily, lastingly + in surprise, curiosity, etc.

to glare to look + steadily, lastingly + in anger, rage, fury

to gaze to look + steadily, lastingly + in tenderness, admiration, wonder

to glance to look + briefly, in passing +

to peer to look + steadily, lastingly + by stealth, through an opening

or from a concealed location

to peer to look + steadily, lastingly + with difficulty or strain

↑ ↑

common denotation different connotations

=> the words are synonyms highlight differentiations

(semantic criterion)

(11) Sometimes applied: criterion of interchangeability => synonyms = words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning.

↑

much criticised

when applied => there are very few synonyms or they are not interchangeable

e.g. Cf.:

He glared at her (= He looked at her angrily).

He gazed at her (= He looked at her steadily and attentively; probably with admiration or interest).

He glanced at her (= He looked at her briefly and turned away).

He peered at her (= He tried to see her better, but something prevented: darkness, fog, weak eyesight).

=> each of the synonyms creates an entirely new situation which so sharply differs from the rest that any attempt at "interchanging" anything can only destroy the utterance devoiding it of any sense at all.

(12)e.g.: / like you, but I cannot love you; the young man was strolling, and his child was trotting by his side; Romeo should smile, not grin, etc.

↑

substitution of one word for another is impossible:

=> it is not simply the context that firmly binds synonims in their proper places, but the peculiar individual connotative structure of each individual word

=> it is difficult to accept interchangeability as a criterion of synonymy because the specific characteristic of synonyms, and the one justifying their very existence, is that they are not, cannot and should not be interchangeable

(13) Still some synonyms are interchangeable - groups of words with half-erased connotations which can readily be substituted one for another – but even they are not totally interchangeable:

"I wouldn't say you'd been exactly pretty as a girl — handsome is what I'd say. You've got such strong features."

(From The Stone Angel by M. Lawrence)

handsome ≠ pretty, but they are synonyms having common denotation = "good-looking, of pleasing appearance"

(14) even if there are some synonyms which areinterchangeable, it is quite certain that there are also others which are not. A criterion, if it is a criterion at all, should be applicable to all synonyms and not just to some of them. Otherwise it is not acceptable as a valid criterion.

Types of Synonyms

(15)V. V. Vinogradov’s classification is the only one:

Synonyms

ideographicstylisticabsolute

words conveying the same differing in stylistic coinciding in all their shades

concept but differing in characteristics of meaning and in all their

shades of meaning stylistic characteristics

(16)Controversial points:

1) absolute synonyms are rare in the vocabulary; on the diachronic level, the phenomenon of absolute synonymy is anomalous = temporary => the vocabulary system invariably tends to abolish it: 1) by rejecting one of the absolute synonyms, 2) by developing differentiation characteristics in one or both (or all) of them.

=> it is not necessary to include absolute synonyms, which are a temporary exception, in the system of classification.

2) "shades of meaning" is a vague term; no rigid demarcation line b/w synonyms differing in their shades of meaning & in stylistic characteristics; numerous synonyms are distinguished by both shades of meaning & stylistic colouring.

=> even the subdivision of synonyms into ideographic and stylistic is open to question.

(17)A more modern & effective classification - based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations ← convenient to classify connotations by which synonyms differ rather than synonyms themselves => possibilities for tracing much subtler distinctive features within SSW.

Types of Connotations

I. Connotation of degree or intensity

to surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound;

to satisfy — to please — to content — to gratify — to delight — to exalt;

to shout — to yell — to bellow — to roar;

to like — to admire — to love — to adore — to worship

Some words have 2 and even more connotative components in their SSW

II. Connotation of duration

to stare — to glare — to gaze — to glance — to peep — to peer

to flash (brief) — to blaze (lasting);

to shudder (brief) — to shiver (lasting);

to say (brief) — to speak, to talk (lasting)

All these synonyms have other connotations besides that of duration

III. Emotive connotation

to stare — to glare — to gaze

alone — single — lonely — solitary:

She was alone (simply the absence of company)

She was lonely (stresses the feeling of melancholy & desolation resulting from being alone)

A single tree on the plain ( there is (was) only one tree, not 2 or more)

A lonely tree on the plain (+ creates an emotionally coloured picture)

to tremble — to shiver — to shudder — to shake

↑

associated with the emotion of fear, horror or disgust, etc.

NB: Don’t confuse words with emotive connotations and words with emotive denotative meanings:

to love — to admire — to adore — to worship ← emotion is an accompanying, subsidiary characteristic

angry - furious - enraged; fear - terror - horror ← emotion is expressed by the leading semantic component

IV. Evaluative connotation (conveys the speaker's attitude towards the referent, labelling it as good or bad)

well-known — famous — notorious — celebrated

↑ ↑

negative positive

evaluative evaluative

connotation connotation

Cf.: a notorious murderer, robber, swindler, coward, lady-killer, flirt

BUT a celebrated scholar, artist, singer, man-of-letters

to produce — to create — to manufacture — to fabricate

↑ ↑

inspired & noble to produce in a

process mechanical way

(positive EC) without inspiration

or originality

(negative EC)

to sparkle - to glitter = close synonyms, but:

1) His (her) eyes sparkled with amusement, merriment, good humour, high spirits, happiness, etc. (positive emotions).

2) His (her) eyes glittered with anger, rage, hatred, malice, etc. (negative emotions)

=> when describe the expression of human eyes, they have both emotive and evaluative connotations