Послесловие. Животные, ставшие богами

70 тысяч лет назад Homo sapiens все еще был незначительным животным, жившим своей жизнью где-то на задворках Африки. В последующие тысячелетия он преобразился во владыку планеты, в ужас экосистемы. Сегодня он стоит на грани превращения в бога, обретения не только вечной молодости, но и божественной способности творить и разрушать.

К сожалению, господство сапиенсов пока произвело мало того, чем мы могли бы гордиться. Мы подчинили себе окружающую среду, увеличили производство пищи, построили города и империи, связали все уголки Земли торговой сетью. Но разве страдания на планете стало меньше? Мощные революции, заметно расширявшие возможности человечества, далеко не всегда улучшали условия жизни отдельных людей и, как правило, причиняли ужасные несчастья другим живым существам.

За последние десятилетия нам наконец удалось существенно улучшить положение человека, уменьшив масштабы голода, болезней и войн. Но положение других животных ухудшается еще быстрее, чем прежде, да и участь большей части человечества улучшилась так недавно и настолько эфемерно, что радоваться пока еще рано.

Более того, научившись стольким замечательным вещам, мы так и не разобрались в своих целях, и мы все еще не удовлетворены. Мы строили каноэ, потом галеоны, потом пароходы, а теперь уже и космические корабли — но куда мы стремимся? Мы обрели невиданное прежде могущество, но понятия не имеем, как им распорядиться. Хуже того, люди становятся все безответственнее. Боги-самозванцы, мы считаемся только с законами физики и ни перед кем не отвечаем за свои поступки. Мы превратили в кошмар жизнь других животных, мы разрушаем экосистему планеты, думая лишь о своем комфорте и удовольствии — и ни в чем не находим счастья.

Что может быть опаснее, чем разочарованные, безответственные боги, так и не осознавшие, чего они хотят?

Благодарности

Люди, которых я хотел бы поблагодарить за помощь и советы: Сараи Ахарони, Дорит Ахаронов, Амос Авизар, Цафрир Барзилаи, Ной Бенинга, Сюзанна Дин, Каспиан Деннис, Тирза Эйзенберг, Амир Финк, Сара Холлоуэй, Бенджамин 3. Кедар, Йосси Мори, Эйал Миллер, Давид Милнер, Джон Перселл, Саймон Родес, Шмуэль Рознер, Рами Ротхольц, Михаль Шавит, Идан Шерер, Элли Стил, Офер Стейниц, Михаэль Шенкар, Хаим Вацман, Гай Заславски и все преподаватели и студенты программы Всемирной истории в Еврейском университете Иерусалима.

Особая благодарность Джареду Даймонду, который учил меня смотреть шире, Диего Холстейну, который вдохновил меня написать эту книгу, а также Ицику Яхаву и Деборе Харрис, которые помогли, чтобы ее прочел весь мир.

Комментарии

Далее я буду называть представителей вида Homo sapiens просто сапиенсами. — Прим. авт.

Горизонтом возможностей называется весь спектр верований, практик и опыта, доступных конкретному обществу, с учетом экологических, технологических и культурных условий. Любое общество и каждый человек, как правило, используют лишь малую часть своего горизонта возможностей. — Прим. авт.

Допустима и другая гипотеза: не все 18 обитателей долины Дуная погибли от насилия, следы которого сохранились на их костях. Кто-то мог быть только ранен. С другой стороны, многие могли умереть от не оставившей следа раны в мягкие ткани или от неизбежного спутника войны — голода. — Прим. авт.

Пер. Б. Далматова.

Условное название региона на Ближнем Востоке, охватывающего Месопотамию и Левант. Прим. ред.

Даже после того, как общеупотребительным в устном общении стал аккадский язык, официальным, а значит, и письменным языком оставался шумерский, и именно на этом языке следовало разговаривать будущему писцу. — Прим. авт.

Актуарные расчёты — расчёты тарифных ставок страхования на основе методов математической статистики. Применяются во всех видах страхования. Основаны на использовании закона больших чисел. Отражают в виде математических формул механизм образования и расходования страхового фонда. Особую роль играют в долгосрочном страховании, например, связанном с продолжительностью жизни населения, то есть в страховании жизни и пенсионном страховании.

Пер. М. Фроман.

Буквально: Объединенная Ост-Индская компания.

От англ. wall — стена.

В такой общине все хорошо друг друга знают и не могут друг без друга выжить. — Прим. авт.

Атомный мир (лат.).

Парадоксальным образом психологические исследования субъективного благополучия полностью полагаются на способность человека точно диагностировать свой уровень счастья, в то время как вся теория и практика психотерапии основаны на убеждении, что человек себя не знает и нуждается в профессиональной помощи, чтобы освободиться от саморазрушительных тенденций. — Прим. авт.

Кишечная палочка (эшерихия коли, лат. Escherichia coli; общепринятое сокращение E. coli) — вид грамотрицательных палочковидных бактерий, факультативных анаэробов, входящий в состав нормальной микрофлоры желудочно-кишечного тракта человека.

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[19]John Alroy, ‘A Multispecies Overkill Simulation of the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Mass Extinction, Science , 292:5523 (2001), 1893-1896; O’Connel and Allen, ‘Pre-LGM Sahul’, 400-401.

[20]L.H. Keeley, ‘Proto-Agricultural Practices Among Hunter-Gatherers: A Cross-Cultural Survey’, in Last Hunters, First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, ed. T. Douglas Price and Anne Birgitte Gebauer (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research Press, 1995), 243-272; R. Jones, ‘Firestick Farming’, Australian Natural History 16 (1969), 224-228.

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[23]Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 130-131.

[24]Katherine A. Spielmann, A Review: Dietary Restriction on Hunter- Gatherer Women and the Implications for Fertility and Infant Mortality’, Human Ecology 17:3 (1989), 321-345. See also: Bruce Winterhalder and Eric Alder Smith, Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty Five’, Evolutionary Anthropology 9:2 (2000), 51-72.

[25]Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins and Hector Perez-Brignoli (eds.), Infant and Child Mortality in tde Past (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); Edward Anthony Wrigley et al., English Population History from Family Reconstitution , 1580-1837 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 295-296, 303.

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[27]Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust (New York: Lantern Books, 2002), 9-10; Peter J. Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby (ed.), The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (London: Duckworth, 1969), 259.

[28]Avi Pinkas (ed.), Farmyard Animals in Israel — Researchy Humanism and Activity (Rishon Le-Ziyyon: The Association for Farmyard Animals, 2009 [Hebrew]), 169-199; “Milk Production — the Cow” [Hebrew], The Dairy Council, accessed March 22, 2012, http://www.milk.org.il/cgi-webaxy/sal/Sal.pl?lang=he&ID=645657_milk&act=show&dbid=katavot&dataid=cow.htm.

[29]Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); E.C. Amoroso and P.A. Jewell, ‘The Exploitation of the Milk-Ejection Reflex by Primitive People’, in Man and Cattle: Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication at the Royal Anthropological Institute , 24-26 May 1960 , ed. A.E. Mourant and F.E. Zeuner (London: The Royal Anthropological Institute, 1963), 129-134.

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[31]Angus Maddison, The World Economy , vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006), 636; “Historical Estimates of World Population”, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis. html.

[32]Robert B. Mark, The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002), 24.

[33]Raymond Westbrook, ‘Old Babylonian Period’, in A History of Ancient Near Eastern Lawy vol. I, ed. Raymond Westbrook (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 361-430; Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 71-142; M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabis Laws: Text , Translation and Glossary (London: T&T Clark International, 2000).

[34]Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 76.

[35]Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia , 121.

[36]Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia , 122-123.

[37]Roth, Law Collections , 133-134.

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[39]Andrew Robinson, The Story of Writing (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 63; Hans J. Nissen, Peter Damerow and Robert K. Englung, Archaic Bookkeeping: Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East (Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), 36.

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[46]Houston, First Writing , 196.

[47]The Secretary-General, United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence Against Women, delivered to the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. А/16/122/Add. 1 (July 6,2006), 89.

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[51]Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver’, 17-18.

[52]David Graeber, Debt: The First 5,000 Years (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House, 2011).

[53]Glyn Davies, A History of Money: from Ancient Times to the Present Day (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1994), 15.

[54]Szymon Laks, Music of Another World , trans. Chester A. Kisiel (Evanston, 111.: Northwestern University Press, 1989), 88-89. «Рынок» Освенцима был ограничен определенными категориями заключенных, и условия резко менялись в зависимости от времени.

[55]Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money (New York: The Penguin Press, 2008), 4.

[56]Сведения о ячменных деньгах я почерпнул из неопубликованной диссертации: Refael Benvenisti, Economic Institutions of Ancient Assyrian Trade in the Twentieth to Eighteenth Centuries BC (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 2011). См. также Norman Yoffee, ‘The Economy of Ancient Western Asia’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East , vol. 1, ed. J.M. Sasson (New York: C. Scribners Sons, 1995), 1387-1399; R. К. Englund, ‘Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals’, in Creating Economic Order: Record-keepingy Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East , ed. Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2004), 21-46; Marvin A. Powell, ‘A Contribution to the History of Money in Mesopotamia prior to the Invention of Coinage, in Festschrift Lubor MatouS , ed. B. Hruska and G. Komoroczy (Budapest: Eotvos Lorand Tudomanyegyetem, 1978), 211— 243; Marvin A. Powell, ‘Money in Mesopotamia, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , 39:3 (1996), 224-242; John F. Robertson, ‘The Social and Economic Organization of Ancient Mesopotamian Temples’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East , vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 443-500; M. Silver, ‘Modern Ancients’, in Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction , ed. R. Rollinger and U. Christoph (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2004), 65-87; Daniel C. Snell, ‘Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 1487-1497.

[57]Nahum Megged, The Aztecs (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1999 [Hebrew]), 103.

[58]Тацит. Агрикола, гл. XXX. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 220-221.

[59]A. Fienup-Riordan, The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution (Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University Press, 1983), p. 10.

[60]Yuri Pines, ‘Nation States, Globalization and a United Empire — the Chinese Experience (third to fifth centuries BC)’, Historia 15 (1995), 54 [Hebrew].

[61]Alexander Yakobson, ‘Us and Them: Empire, Memory and Identity in Claudius’ Speech on Bringing Gauls into the Roman Senate’, in On Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. Doron Mendels (Oxford: Peter Land, 2007), 23-24.

[62]W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 2008), 536-537.

[63]Robert Jean Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France , 1483- 1610 (London: Fontana Press, 1996), 424.

[64]Marie Harm and Hermann Wiehle, Lebenskunde fuer Mittelschulen — Fuenfter Teil. Klasse 5 fuer Jungen (Halle: Hermann Schroedel Verlag, 1942), 152-157.

[65]Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

[66]David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 344-345; Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001), 636; ‘Historical Estimates of World Population’, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html.

[67]Maddison, The World Economy , vol. 1, 261.

[68]"Gross Domestic Product 2009", The World Bank, Data and Statistics, accessed December 10,2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf.

[69]Christian, Maps of Time, 141.

[70]Самое крупное современное грузовое судно перевозит около 100 тысяч тонн. В 1470 году совокупный тоннаж мирового торгового флота составлял 730 тысяч тонн (Maddison, The World Economy , vol. 1,97).

[71]Крупнейший мировой банк — Королевский банк Шотландии — на 2007 год хранил депозиты общей стоимостью 1,3 триллиона долларов. Это впятеро больше совокупного мирового производства за 1500 год. См. ‘Annual Report and Accounts 2008’, The Royal Bank of Scotland, 35, accessed December 10,2010, http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/RBS/626570033x0x278481/eb7a003a-5c9b-41ef-bad3-81fb98a6c823/RBS_GRA_2008_09_03_09.pdf.

[72]Ferguson, Ascent of Money, 185-198.

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[75]Wrigley, English Population History , 296.

[76]Там же.

[77]Michael Prestwich, Edward I (Berkley: University of California Press, 1988), 125-126.

[78]Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Matins Press, 2004); Kenneth John Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

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[82]John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405 (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 239.

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[84]Mark, The Origins of the Modern World , 46.

[85]Kirkpatrik Sale, Christopher Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006), 7-13.

[86]Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society: 1815-1914 (London: Longman, 1980), 121; Robin Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858-1914’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century ; vol. 3, ed. Andrew Porter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 442.

[87]Vinita Damodaran, ‘Famine in Bengal: A Comparison of the 1770 Famrtne in Bengal and the 1897 Famine in Chotanagpur’, The Medieval History Journal 10: 1-2 (2007), 151.

[88]Maddison, World Economy , vol. 1, 261, 264; ‘Gross National Income Per Capita 2009, Atlas Method and PPP’, The World Bank, accessed December 10, 2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf.

[89]Этот пример с пекарней не слишком точен по расчетам. Поскольку банк вправе одалживать $10 на каждый имеющийся у него $1, банки могут выдавать предпринимателям по $909 тысяч из миллиона, резервируя $91 тысячу. Но, чтобы облегчить жизнь читателям, я предпочел круглые числа. Тем более банки не так уж и строго придерживаются этих правил.

[90]Carl Trocki, Opium , Empire and the Global Political Economy (New York: Routledge, 1999), 91.

[91]Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A Peoples History (London: Zed Books, 2002), 22.

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[103]Подробное обсуждение беспрецедентного мира последних десятилетий см. в особенности Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011); Joshua S. Goldstein, Winning the War on War: The Decline of Armed Conflict Worldwide (New York, N.Y.: Dutton, 2011); Gat, War in Human Civilization.

[104]‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10,2010, http://www.who. int/whr/2001/en/whr0 l_annex_en.pdf. Уровень смертности в прежние эпохи см. Lawrence Н. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

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[109]О психологии и биохимии счастья полезно почитать: Jonathan Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2006); R. Wright, The Moral Animal: Evolutionary Psychology and Everyday Life (New York: Vintage Books, 1994); M. Csikszentmihalyi, ‘If We Are So Rich, Why Aren’t We Happy?’, American Psychologist 54:10 (1999): 821-827; F. A. Huppert, N. Baylis and B. Keverne, ed., The Science of Well-Being (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Happiness, 2nd edition (New York: Routledge, 2001); Ed Diener (ed.), Assessing Well-Being: The Collected Works of Ed Diener (New York: Springer, 2009); Michael Eid and Randy J. Larsen (eds.)> The Science of Subjective Well-Being (New York: Guilford Press, 2008); Richard A. Easterlin (ed.), Happiness in Economics (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Pub., 2002); Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a New Science (New York: Penguin, 2005).

[110]Kahneman et al., “A Survey Method for Characterizing Daily Life experience: The Day Reconstruction Method”, Science 3 (2004): 1776-1780; Inglehart et al., "Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness," 278-281.

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[117]Liangxue Lai et al., ‘Generation of Cloned Transgenic Pigs Rich in Omega-3 Fatty Acids’, Nature Biotechnology 24:4 (2006), 435-436.

[118]Ya-Ping Tang et al., ‘Genetic Enhancement of Learning and Memory in Mice’, Nature 401 (1999), 63-69.

[119]Zoe R. Donaldson and Larry J. Young, ‘Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Neurogenetics of Sociality’, Science 322:5903 (2008), 900-904; Zoe R. Donaldson, ‘Production of Germline Transgenic Prairie Voles (Microtus Ochrogaster) Using Lentiviral Vectors’, Biology of Reproduction 81:6 (2009), 1189-1195.

[120]Terri Pous, ‘Siberian Discovery Could Bring Scientists Closer to Cloning Woolly Mammoth’, Time , September 17, 2012, accessed February 19, 2013; Pasqualino Loi et al, ‘Biological time machines: a realistic approach for cloning an extinct mammal’, Endangered Species Research 14 (2011), 227-233; Leon Huynen, Craig D. Millar and David M. Lambert, ‘Resurrecting ancient animal genomes: The extinct moa and more, Bioessays 34 (2012), 661-669.

[121]Nicholas Wade, ‘Scientists in Germany Draft Neanderthal Genome’, New York Times , February 12,2009, accessed December 10,2010, http://www. nytimes.com/2009/02/13/science/13neanderthal.html?_r=2&ref=science; Zack Zorich, ‘Should We Clone Neanderthals?’, Archaeology 63:2 (2009), accessed 10 December, 2010, http://www.archaeology.org/1003/etc/ neanderthals.html.

[122]Robert H. Waterston et al., ‘Initial Sequencing and Comparative Analysis of the Mouse Genome’, Nature 420:6915 (2002), 520.

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[124]Bill Christensen, ‘Military Plans Cyborg Sharks’, Live Science , March 7, 2006, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.livescience.com/ technology/060307_shark_implant.html.

[125]‘Cochlear Implants’, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, accessed March 22, 2012, http://www.mdcd. nih.gov/health/hearing/pages/coch.aspx.

[126]Retina Implant, http://www.retina-implant.de/en/doctors/technology/ default.aspx.

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[128]Miguel Nicolelis, Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains and Machines - and How It Will Change Our Lives (New York: Times Books, 2011).

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[130]Jonathan Fildes, ‘Artificial Brain “10 years away”’, BBC News , July 22, 2009, accessed 19 September, 2012, http://news.bbc. co.Uk/2/hi/8164060.stm.

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