Теоретическая грамматика английского языка.

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА.

Simple Sentence

A simple sentencecontains one independent clause - Robert doesn’t eat meat.

Compound Sentence -A compound sentencehas two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so, yet, however), although each independent clause could be a sentence by itself . f.ex Robert doesn’t eat meat, so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him

Complex Sentence -A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. f.ex Robert, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat.

Compound-Complex Sentence -A compound-complex sentencecontains 3 or more clauses: 2 independent and at least 1 dependent clause. f. ex Robert, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat – so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him.

ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА.

Вопрос 3. Suffixation and classification of Suffixes.

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech. There are suffixes, however, which do not shift words from one part of speech into another; a suffix of this kind usually transfers a word into a different semantic group, e.g. a concrete noun becomes an abstract one, as in the case with child - childhood, friend- friendship etc. Suffixes may be classified:

1. According to the part of speech they form

a). Noun-suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ation (e.g. teacher, freedom, brightness,

justification).

b). Adjective-suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous (e.g. agreeable, careless, doubtful,

poetic, courageous).

c). Verb-suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize (e.g. darken, satisfy, harmonize).

d). Adverb-suffixes: -ly, -ward (e.g. quickly, eastward).

e) numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold): -teen (fourteen): -th (seventh): -ty (sixty)

2. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the suffixes are usually

added to:

a). Deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base):-er, -ing, -ment, -able (speaker,

reading, agreement, suitable).

b). Denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base):-less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some

(handless, childish, mouthful, troublesome).

c). Deadjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base):-en, -ly, -ish, -ness (blacken,

slowly, reddish, brightness).

3. According to the meaning expressed by suffixes:

a). The agent of an action: -er, -ant (e.g. baker, dancer, defendant),

b). Appurtenance64: -an, -ian, -ese (e.g. Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese

Japanese).

c). Collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery (-ry) (e.g. freightage, officialdom, peasantry).

4. According to the degree of productivity:

a). Highly productive b). Productive

c). Non-productive

5. According to the stylistic value:

a). Stylistically neutral:-able, -er, -ing.

b). Stylistically marked:-oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron (e.g. asteroid)

Semantically suffixes fall into:

-monosemantic. the suffix -ess has only one meaning female

-polysemantic, the suffix -hood has two meanings: condition or quality —falsehood;

‘collection or group’ — brotherhood.

Вопрос 5. Conversion as a mean of word-formation in Modern English

Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero suffuxation. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of that.:

a) verbs can have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body, tools, machines, instruments, weapons: to eye, to hammer, to machine-gun, tо rifle;

b) verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being: to crowd, to wolf, to ape;

c) verbs can denote acquisition, addition, deprivation: to fish, to dust, to paper;

d) verbs can denote an action performed at the place: to park, to bottle, to corner.

Verbs can be converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state: to tame, to slim.

Verbs can be also converted from other parts of speech: to down (adverb), to pooh-pooh (interjection).

Nouns can also be converted from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:

a) instant of an action: a jump, a move;

b) process or state: sleep, walk;

c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted: a help, a flirt;

d) object or result of the action: a find, a burn;

e) place of the action: a drive, a stop.

Sometimes nouns are formed from adverbs: ups and downs.

ИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА.

Transposition of pronouns

1. Demonstrative – this, these, that, those may be used to express various shades of emotional meanings, attitudes, from admiration to contempt. (That beautiful sister of yours! These lawyers! Ох уж эта Настя!)

2. Personal pronouns can express cold official relations, indulgence (снисхождение), arrogance (высокомерие), and sympathy: We are exceedingly charming this evening! (“we” is used instead of “you” to express condescending-approving (снисходительно -одобрительный) attitude of the speaker to the young girl.

a) the plural of modesty. In scientific prose WE implies the author and his imaginary reader. The author's WE, or the plural of modesty, is used with the purpose to identify oneself with the audience or society at large (in order not to mention himself for the reason of modesty but associate himself with his recipients): Now, we come to the conclusion that...

b) the plural of majesty. WE can be used with reference to a single person, the speaker (instead of the pronoun I). It is called the plural of majesty and is used in royal speech: By the Grace of Our Lord, We, Charles the Second...

c) In literary texts (in prose fiction) YOU is used to involve the reader into the action, to make him participate in the events, to impart the emotions prevailing in the narration to the reader (You know).

Transposition of nouns

1. The use of singular noun instead of an appropriate plural form creates a generalized, elevated effect bordering on symbolization:

The faint fresh flame of the young year flushes

From leaf to flower and from flower to fruit

And fruit and leaf are as gold and fire (Swineburn).

2. The abstract noun (normally uncountable) used in the plural form (hyperbolic plural) makes the narration more expressive and brings about aesthetic semantic growth, e.g.: Still waters run deep. When sorrows come they come not single spies but in battalions.

Transposition of adjectives

Transposition of adjectives turns them into nouns to make the utterance more expressive and tangible (осязаемый): “The Red and the Black”, Isolde the Slender.

The grammatical category of comparison. When relative adjectives denoting qualities normally incompatible with the idea of degrees of comparison (such as colours, physical states, materials) are used in a comparative or a superlative degree, they acquire an evaluative force and become charged with a strong expressive power: pinker, greener; You cannot be deader than the dead (E. Hemingway).

The use of comparative and superlative forms with other parts of speech conveys a humorous colouring, e.g.: He was the most married man I've ever met.

Violation of grammatical norms of forming degrees of comparison (e.g- the use of synthetical forms with longer adjectives instead of analytical ones) in a literary text serves to reveal the speaker's ruffled emotions (his overemotional state): "Curioser and curioser!" cried Alice (L. Carroll).

Verb transpositions

The verb possesses more grammatical characteristics than any other Part of speech. All deviant usages of tense, voice and aspect forms have strong stylistic connotations and play an important role in creating a metaphorical meaning.

1. Тhe most vivid example of grammatical transposition is the so-called Historical (or Dramatic) Present (the use of present forms in order to express actions which took place in the past) The aim is to join different time systems — that of the characters, of the author and of the reader, all of whom may belong to different epochs.Writers (Ch. Dickens) often present past events as if they were in the present. “Иду я вчера и вижу…”

2. The auxiliary verb do/does/did in combination with a main-verb is a frequent emphatic device in colloquial speech, e.g.: I do know him; He does look pale; Do let's go to the theatre. Do stop calling me Billy in public! You don’t say! (Да что вы говорите!)

3. The use of Present Continuous into the sphere of Indefinite creates a lot of connotations, may express:

1) conviction, determination, persistence: Well, she is never coming here again, I tell you that straight (S. Maugham);

2) impatience, irritation: — I didn't mean to hurt you.— You did. You are doing nothing else (B. Shaw);

3) surprise, indignation, disapproval: Women kill me. They are always leaving their goddamn bags out in the middle of the aisle (Salinger).

Variation of morphemes:

· The usage of archaic, colloquial or low-colloquial forms to create certain stylistic connotations. Grammatical archaisms make the utterance solemn and high-flown: taketh, giveth, hath, couldst, thou, thee, etc.

· The usage of contracted forms to create natural character of speech: is not (neutral) – isn’t (colloquial), ain’t (low- colloquial).

Stylistically coloured morphemes are characteristic of certain type of speech. For example, prefixes super-, supra-, hyper-, omni- create bookish connotations, suffixes –y/ie – colloquial (deary, auntie, birdie, girlie).

Stylistic effect of emphasis can be created due to repetition of morphemes:

She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door.

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА.