Direct current and alternating current

When a cell or any other generator is connected so as to form a continuous path of conductors the electrons begin to move through conductors forming an electric current or an electric circuit. This phenomenon is known to be the electricity flow through a circuit. If broken anywhere, the electric circuit will stop carrying a current. There are two main types of current: direct and alternating. When electrons flow in one direction only, the current is called a direct current. When electrons flow first in one direction and then in another in a periodic manner, the current is called an alternating current.

Alternating current flows in cycles. The number of cycles per second is accepted to be termed the frequency of current. In a 60-cycle alternating current circuit, the current flows in one direction 60 times per second and in the other direction 60 times per second.

Two frequencies are in use nowadays: the standard for Europe is 50 cycles per second, while the standard for the USA is 60 cycles per second. A standard frequency has a great advantage since different electrical systems can be interconnected.

Notes

cell — элемент

circuit — электрическая цепь

to term — называть, выражать

frequency — частота, частотность

to interconnect —связывать, объединять энергосистемы

cycle per second — герц

II. Read the text and define whether the following statements are true or false.

If broken anywhere, the electric current will continue carrying a current.

When electrons flow first in one direction and then in another in a periodic manner, the current is called a direct current.

The standard frequency for the USA is 60 cycles per second.

III. Expand the sentences.

1. There are two main types of current.

2. Alternating current flows in cycles.

3. Two frequencies are in use nowadays.

IV. Now decide which of the following statements express important ideas or supporting details.

1. a) One of the main types of current is termed alternating.

b) The electrons moving through conductors form an electric current.

c) An alternating current is a current that changes its directions of flow through a circuit in a periodic manner.

2. a) The number of cycles per second is called the frequency of current.

b) The standard frequency for Europe is 50 cycles per second.

c) There are two frequencies in use nowadays.

V. Find the words – carriers of the primary and the secondary information in the text.

VI. Define the function of commas in the text.

VII. Find out the means of connection of simple, compound and complex sentences.

IX. Arrange the sentences in the logical order according to the text.

1. In a 60-cycle alternating current circuit, the current flows first in one direction and then in another 60 times per second.

2. A standard frequency has a great advantage.

3. When electrons flow in one direction only the current is called a direct current.

IX. Give the main points of the text in 4-5 sentences.

Text C

I. Translate from English into Russian.

Laser

In the “War of Worlds” written before the turn of the century H. Wells told a fantastic story of how Martians almost invaded our Earth. Their weapon was a mysterious “sword of heat”. Today Wells’ sword of heat has come to reality in the laser. The name stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

Laser, one of the most sophisticated inventions of man, produces an intensive beam of light of a very pure single colour. It represents the fulfilment of one of the mankind’s oldest dreams of technology to provide a light beam intensive enough to vaporize the hardest and most heat-resistant materials. It can indeed make lead run like water, or, when focused, it can vaporize any substance on earth. There is no material unamenable to laser treatment and by the end of 2000 laser will have become one of the main technological tools.

The applications of laser in industry and science are so many and so varied as to suggest magic. Scientists in many countries are working at a very interesting problem: combining the two big technological discoveries of the second half of the 20-th century – laser and thermonuclear reaction – to produce a practically limitless source of energy. Physicists of this country have developed large installations to conduct physical experiments in heating thermonuclear fuel with laser beams. There also exists an idea to use laser for solving the problem of controlled thermonuclear reaction. The laser beam must heat the fuel to the required temperature so quickly that the plasma does not have time to disintegrate. According to current estimates, the duration of the pulse has to be approximately a thousand-millionth of a second. The light capacity of this pulse would be dozen of times greater than the capacity of all the world’s power plants. To meet such demands in practice scientists and engineers must work hard as it is clear that a lot of difficulties are to be encountered on route.

The laser’s most important potential may be its use in communications. The intensity of a laser can be rapidly changed to encode very complex signals. In principle, one laser beam, vibrating a billion times faster than ordinary radio waves, could carry the radio, TV and telephone messages of the world simultaneously. In just a fraction of a second, for example, one laser beam could transmit the entire text of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Besides, there are projects to use lasers for long distance communication and for transmission of energy to space stations, to the surface of the Moon or to planets in the solar system. Projects have also been suggested to place lasers aboard Earth satellites nearer to the Sun in order to transform the solar radiation into laser beams, with this transformed energy subsequently transmitted to the Earth or to other space bodies. These projects have not yet been put into effect, because of the great technological difficulties to be overcome and therefore the great cost involved. But there is no doubt that in time these projects will be realized and the laser beam will begin operating in outer space as well.

Grammar Study

Модальные глаголы

(Modal Verbs)

Модальные глаголы не называют действие или состояние, а выражают лишь отношение лица (подлежащего) к действию или состоянию, выраженному инфинитивом, т.е. имеют значение возможности, вероятности или необходимости совершения этого действия или данного состояния.

Модальные глаголы отличаются от других глаголов следующими особенностями:

у модальных глаголов нет инфинитива, причастия, герундия;

они не изменяются по лицам и числам;

эти глаголы не употребляются в повелительном наклонении;

вопросительную и отрицательную формы они образуют без вспомогательных глаголов.

Наиболее употребительные

модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты

Таблица 1

Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты	Present	Past	Future

Can	can The most powerful lasers can cut through metal and other materials. Самые мощные лазеры могут разрезать металл и другие материалы.	could Fifty years ago computers could store no more than thousand bytes. Пятьдесят лет назад компьютеры могли хранить не более тысячи байт информации.	-
To be able to	am/is/are able to Modern computers are able to recognize human speech. Современные компьютеры могут распознавать человеческую речь.	was/were able to In 1901 Marconi was able to senda radio message from Europe to America. В 1901г. Маркони смог отправить радиосообщения из Европы в Америку.	shall/will be able to Computers will be able to interact fully with their users. Компьютеры смогут полностью взаимодейст-вовать с поль-зователями.
Must (долженствование)	must We must take action to reduce environmental pollution. Мы должны принимать меры по уменьшению загрязнения окружающей среды.	-	-
Should	should The students should know the main laws of thermodynamics. Студенты должны знать основные законы термодинамики.	-	-
to have to (необходимость выполнения действия)	Have (has) to The water in this area has to be purified of undesirable chemicals. Вода в этом районе должна быть очищена от нежелательных химикатов.	had to The water in this area had to be purified of undesirable chemicals. Вода в этом районе должна была быть очищена от нежелательных химикатов.	shall (will) have to The water in this area will have to be purified of undesirable che-micals. Вода в этом районе должна будет очищаться от нежелательных химикатов
To be to (запланированность действия)	am (is, are) to The scientists are to launcha fundamental investigation next month. Ученые должны начать фундаментальное исследование в следующем месяце.	Was (were) to The scientists were to launch а fundamental investigation last month. Ученые должны были начать фундаментальное исследование в прошлом месяце.	-
May (разрешение, позволение)	May Our nuclear scientists may investigate this issue. Наши ученые – ядерщики могут исследовать эту проблему.	Might Our nuclear scientists might investigatethis issue. Наши ученые – ядер-щики могли исследовать эту проблему.	-

В языке научной литературы действие, выраженное перфектным инфинитивом, обычно относится к прошедшему времени. Глагол must с последующим Perfect Infinitive переводится должен был, должно быть, вероятно, глагол could – возможно, мог, мог бы, may – возможно, может быть, might – мог бы.

The explosion must have occurred long ago.

Взрыв, вероятно, произошел давно.

I could have gone to the conference, but I lost my invitation.

Я мог бы поехать на конференцию, но потерял пригласительный билет.

You might have proved that supposition by experiment.

Вы могли бы доказать эту гипотезу путем эксперимента.

Глаголы canи could в отрицательной форме в сочетании c Perfect Infinitive выражают сомнение в возможности совершении действия в прошлом и обычно переводятся не может быть, чтобы + глагол в прошедшем времени, не мог + неопределенная форма глагола.

Life couldn’t have existed on that planet.

Не может быть, чтобы на той планете существовалажизнь.

I. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.

Look at those clouds. I think it can/might/must rain.

This is impossible! It can’t be/mustn’t be/may not be the answer.

Well done! You may be/must be/might be very pleased!

I’ve no idea where Jane is. She could be/must be anywhere!

I suppose it’s possible. I might/can/must come to your party.

I’m not sure. I must not/ may not be able to get there in time.

That can’t be/ mustn’t be/ may not be David. He hasn’t got a bike.

Lisa isn’t here yet. She can be/must be on her way.

There’s someone at the door. It can be/could be the postman.

Sorry, I can’t /may not come out. I have to do my homework.

II. Rewrite each sentence, using can, can’t, might or must, beginning and ending as shown.

Helen is really good at swimming. Helen can swim really well.

It’s possible that our team will win. Our team…………………….. win.

I’m sure this isn’t right road. This………………………….. the right road.

I’m sure you work very hard! You ………………………….. very hard.

Carol isn’t allowed to come to our party. Carol …………… to our party.

It’s possible that I’ll see you tomorrow, but I’m not sure. I ………….., but I’m not sure.

I’m afraid that your teacher is unable to come today. I’m afraid that ………………………….. today.

I’m sure it’s very hot here in summer. It ………….. here in summer.

Excuse me, is it all right if I open the window? Excuse me, ……….. the window?

I suppose you are Mrs. Perry. How do you do? You …………….. Mrs. Perry. How do you do?

III. Put one suitable modal auxiliary in each space.

Soldiers …… to obey orders.

I think you …………… take your umbrella.

Sorry, I …………… go now. I don’t want to be late.

I’m not sure, but I …………. to help you.

Helen isn’t at home, so she …………….. be on her way here.

We …………….. better not leave any windows open.

It ……………….. be a star, it’s too bright. Perhaps it’s an alien spaceship!

I don’t …………….. to go to work today. It’s a holiday.

Sorry, but I wasn’t ……………..to finish all the work you gave me.

10. I think you …………. to ask you teacher for some advice.

IV. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning and contains the word given.

I'm sure you dropped your wallet at the bus-stop (must).

Maybe Joanna missed the last bus (might).

Peter knew how to skate when he was twelve (able).

Emma was wrong not to tell you the answer(should).

It wasn't necessary for us to pay to get in (didn't).

It wasn't necessary for me to buy any food yesterday (need).

I'm sure that Diana didn't take your books (can't).

Perhaps David didn't notice you(might).

Terry arrived early, but it wasn't necessary (needn't).

It was a bad idea for us to be rude to the policemen (shouldn't).

V. Complete each sentence so that it contains the words given.

I’m completely soaked! We are silly! We ….should have taken an umbrella.... (should/umbrella)

I’ve lost my bag. I think I ………(must/bus)……………………..….. .

I tried to phone Sam, but I ……(couldn't/get through)…………... .

I forgot Kate’s birthday. I ………(should/present)……………….... .

The cat doesn’t like fruit! It ……(can't/orange)…………………….. .

Jo hasn’t turned up yet. I suppose she …(might/address)……….. .

I did badly in the test. I …………(ought/harder)….. .

It’s a shame we didn’t go on holiday. We …(could/good time)…... .

Unit II

Networks

Vocabulary Study

Word List

Nouns and noun phrases

1) web 2) network 3) link 4) access 5) set of rules 6) software 7) screen 8) hierarchy

паутина, сеть сеть ссылка доступ свод правил программное обеспечение экран иерархия

Adjectives

9) valuable 10) defining

ценный, значимый характерный

Verbs and verbal phrases

11) spread 12) be referred to 13) store

распространяться называться хранить, запоминать

I. Read and translate the following words. Arrange them into the groups: a) with one stress or stress on the first syllable; b) with the stress on the second syllable; c) with two or more stresses.

Computer, network, information, resource, link, refer, document, multimedia, company, access (n), communication, worldwide, government, data, display, introduction, hierarchy.

Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.

Network data communication resource software screen

programmes, not forming parts of a computer but used for its operation known facts, information from which conclusions can be drawn surface on which an image is seen on a cathode ray tube a system of interlinked channels of communication supplies of goods, information, materials, which a person has or can use passing on of news, information, feelings, etc.

Choose:

a noun

1. a) useless; b) user; c) usefully; d) to use.

2. а) imaginary; b) imagine; c) imaginative; d) image.

3. a) productive; b) to produce; c) product; d) productively.

4. a) valuable; b) value; c) to value; d) valueless.

a verb

a) reference; b) referable; c) refer; d) referee.

a) connective; b) connection; c) connect; d) connected.

a) explore; b) exploration; c) exploratory; d) explorer.

an adjective

a) specify; b) specifically; c) specific; d) specification.

a) publicity; b) publicly; c) publicize; d) public.

an adverb

a) interactive; b) interact; c) interactively; d) interaction.

Define the meaning of the “x” words.

contain: container = содержать:x

explore: explorer = исследовать: x

store: storage = хранить: x

introduce: introduction = вводить: x

interaction: interactive = взаимодействие: x

define: defining = определять: x

. Underline the suffixes and translate the following adjectives into Russian.

Institutional, accessible, productive, governmental, featureless.

Arrange the words with similar meaning of the two groups in pairs.

web, information, image, products, institution, company, valuable, research, web page, connect, display, feature, allow.

link, web site, show, network, enable, data, characteristics, useful, picture, goods, investigation, firm, organization.

Match the words with their opposites, like the example: hard – easy.

a) worldwide b) valuable c) client d) store e) public f) coded g) wide h) virtual i) include

private exclude worthless narrow decoded real local server delete

Match the verbs from “a” with the nouns from “b”.

Verbs a) use move carry access display connect post communicate store introduce contain

Nouns b) information display container user resources data pages computer

Complete the sentences with the words given below.

WWW is a computer-based network of information .

Millions of users around the world rely on the Internet for information and entertainment as well as for business and personal .

At first only carried text but pictures, video, high-quality sound and other soon followed.

The Internet is a world wide of millions of which can communicate with each other.

The computers store the information resources that make up the web.

The browser on the client’s computer displays the page on the .

a) network, b) websites, c) resources, d) screen, e) features, f) communication, g) server, h) computers.

X. Translate into English.

1. Всемирная паутина – это компьютерная сеть, по которой пользователь может передвигаться с помощью ссылок.

2. Сеть стала очень популярным информационным ресурсом в 1993 г.

3. Информация в сети содержится в разных форматах.

4. С помощью стандартного набора правил сеть объединяет компьютеры двух типов – серверы и персональные компьютеры пользователей.

5. Почти каждая веб-страница содержит гиперссылки на другие веб-сайты.

6. Изобретение браузера позволяет пользователям загружать веб-страницы с мультимедийной информацией.

A. Text Study

Look at the title. What do you think this reading will be about? Read the text and define its main idea.

Text A

WORLD WIDE WEB

World Wide Web (WWW) is a computer-based network of information resources that a user can move through by using links from one document to another. The information on the World Wide Web is spread over computers all over the world. The World Wide Web is often referred to simply as “the Web.”

The Web has become a very popular resource since it first became possible to view images and other multimedia on the Internet, a worldwide network of computers, in 1993. The Web offers a place where companies, institutions, and individuals can display information about their products, research, or their lives. Anyone with access to a computer connected to the Web can view most of that information. Museums, libraries, government agencies, and schools make the Web a valuable learning and research tool by posting data and research. The Web also carries information in a wide spectrum of formats. Users can read text, view pictures, listen to sounds, and even explore interactive virtual environments on the Web.

Like all computer networks, the Web connects two types of computers — clients and servers — using a standard set of rules for communication between the computers. The server computers store the information resources that make up the Web, and Web users use client computers to access the resources. A computer-based network may be a public network — such as the worldwide Internet — or a private network, such as a company's Intranet. The Web is a part of the Internet.

Enabling client computers to display Web pages with pictures and other media was made possible by the introduction of a type of software called a browser. Each Web document contains coded information about what is on the page, how the page should look, and to which other sites the document links. The browser on the client's computer reads this information and uses it to display the page on the client's screen. Almost every Web page includes links, called hyperlinks, to other Web sites. Hyperlinks are a defining feature of the Web — they allow users to travel between Web documents without following a specific order or hierarchy.

Read the text again carefully and answer the questions.

What is the World Wide Web?

How is the Web commonly abbreviated?

When did it become a wide-spread information resource?

What range of services does access to the Web mean for the users?

Can the Web provide instant access to museums, universities, libraries worldwide?

How does the Web link server and client computers?

What are the major functions of these 2 types of computers?

Where can private networks be found?

What invention enables client computers to display various websites?

10. How does the browser use coded information contained in Web documents?

11. Why are hyperlinks an essential feature of the WWW?

Which of the vocabulary units used in paragraph 2 could be regarded as international words?

IV. Read the translation of the second paragraph. Compare it with the original and say if everything is right.

Всемирная паутина станет самым популярным информационным ресурсом, так как в 1993 г. появилась возможность просматривать текстовые и мультимедийные документы по Интернету – локальной компьютерной сети. Паутина представляет компаниям, институтам и юридическим лицам пространство, на котором они могут разместить информацию о продуктах питания, исследованиях и разработках. Любой доступный компьютер, подключенный к всемирной паутине, может предоставить подобную информацию. Музеи, книжные магазины, правительственные учреждения и школы размещают в сети данные и результаты исследований, таким образом, превращая ее в эффективное средство обучения и исследований. Сеть содержит информацию широкого спектра форматов. Пользователи могут читать текстовую информацию, просматривать графику, слушать звуковую информацию и даже исследовать окружающую среду с помощью сети.

V. Find the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations in paragraph 4.

Отображать веб-страницы, программное обеспечение, содержать кодированную информацию, гиперссылка, определяющая черта, определенная последовательность.

Find passage about two types of computers connected by the Web and translate it into Russian.

Choose a passage and read it aloud (1-2 minutes).

Find the topic sentences, key words and phrases which express the general meaning of each paragraph best of all.

Using the information obtained from the paragraphs make a plan of the text.

Speak about the Web using key words, phrases, the topic sentences and the plan of the text.

B. Text Study

Look at the title of the text. Make your predictions about the contents of it. Read the text and answer the questions.

What is the origin of the term “modem”?

What kind of device is a modem?

What are the names of the two main types of modems?

Text B

MODEM

Modem is a device that enables computers, facsimile machines and other equipment to communicate with each other across telephone lines or over cable television network cables. In the strictest sense, a modem is a device that converts between analog signals, such as sound waves, and digital signals, which are used by computers. However, the term has also come to include devices that permit the transmission of entirely digital signals.

Modems transmit data at different speeds, measured by the number of bits of data they send per second (bps). A 28.8 Kbps modem sends data at 28,800 bits per second. A 56 Kbps modem is twice as fast, sending and receiving data at a rate of 56,000 bits per second.

An analog modem converts between the digital signals of the sending computer to analog signals that can be transmitted through telephone lines. When the signal reaches its destination, another modem reconstructs the original digital signal, which is processed by the receiving computer. A standard analog modem has a maximum speed of 33.6 Kbps.

The word modem is an acronym formed from the two basic functions of an analog modem: modulation and demodulation. To convert a digital signal to an analog one, the modem generates a carrier wave and modulates, or adjusts it according to the digital signal. The kind of modulation used depends on the application and the speed of operation for which the modem is designed. The process of receiving the analog signal and converting it back to a digital signal is called demodulation.

Cable modems permit the transmission of data over community antenna television (CATV) networks — that is, the network of cables used to distribute cable television. A cable modem transmits data from the network at about 3 Mbps and transmits data to the network at between 500 Kbps and 2.5 Mbps.

Like a standard analog modem, a cable modem converts between a digital signal and an analog signal. Cable modems are much more complex than standard analog modems. They also incorporate a tuner that separates the digital data from the rest of the broadcast television signal. Because users in multiple locations share the same cable, the modem also includes hardware that permits multiple connections and an encryption/decryption device that prevents data from being intercepted by another user or being sent to the wrong place.

Read the text and define whether the following statements are true or false.

A modem links computers by means of ordinary telephone lines.

Modems convert a computer’s analog language into digital signals that can be transmitted via telephone cables.

The device is called “a modem” in honour of its inventor.

The process of converting analog signals into digital is called modulation.

Analog modems are more complicated than cable ones.

Expand the sentences.

A modem allows computer to communicate via telephone lines.

Modems transmit data at different speeds.

There are two main kinds of modems – analog and cable ones.

Now decide which of the following statements express important ideas or supporting details.

1. a) Modem speeds are measured by the number of bits of data they send per second.

b) A modem allows fast transmission of data to other computers over distances.

c) A 28.8 Kb ps modem sends data at 28.800 bits per second.

2. a) Information travels through the Internet divided into “packets” of data that take different routes.

b) Byte is a unit for measuring the amount of information stored or processed by a computer.

c) The speed of data transmission by means of modem is measured in bits per second.

3. a) An analog modem converts between the digital signals to analog signals that can be transmitted through telephone lines.

b) Cable modems send and receive information over the network of TV cables.

c) There are analog and cable modems.

Find the words – carriers of the primary and the secondary information in paragraph 3.

Define the function of commas in paragraph 1.

Find out the means of connection of simple, compound and complex sentences

Arrange the sentences in the logical order according to the text.

Cable modems permit the transmission of signals over CATV networks.

Another modem reconstructs the original data when the signal reaches its destination.

A modem converts between analog and digital signals.

The term is an acronym formed from 2 basic functions of an analog modem.

A maximum speed of an analog modem is 33.6 Kbps.

Cable modems incorporate tuners, hardware for multiple connections and encryption/decryption devices.

Give the main points of the text in 4-5 sentences.

C. Text Study

I. Translate from English into Russian.

Text C

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL

Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh in 1847. His father was a world-famous teacher of speech and the inventor of a system which he called "Visible Speech". It helped deaf persons to pronounce words they could not hear. Alexander chose the same profession, and as his father became a teacher of the deaf, he moved to the United States and began to teach deaf children to speak. At the same time he worked at improving his father's invention.

In 1866, the nineteen-year-old Bell started thinking about sending tones by telegraph. It was then that there came to his mind the idea of the "harmonic telegraph", which would send musical tones electrically from one place to another. Bell was not a scientist. So he had to give all his energy and time to one thing only – knowledge of electricity. There was little time for rest and little time to eat. Hour after hour, day and night he and his friend Watson worked at testing and experimenting with the telephone. Sometimes it worked and sometimes it did not. "We have to do something to make our telephone work better," Bell used to say again and again.

At last they decided to try a new kind of transmitter. The new transmitter was set in Bell's bedroom. Watson was sitting in the laboratory. He put his ear to the receiver and was waiting. Suddenly he heard Bell's voice. And not the voice only but the words too.

"Mr. Watson, come here. I want you."

It was on the 10th of March, 1876. Alexander Graham Bell had invented the telephone.

In a few years there were telephones all over the world. In 1915, the first transcontinental telephone line was opened. Graham Bell, a very old man now, sat in New York at a desk with a telephone before him, while his friend Watson was listening more than three hundred thousand miles away in San Francisco. People were interested what speech Bell had prepared for that great day, on which the telephone invented by him was to carry sound from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific.

Bell was sitting in a big hall; there were many people in it. Everyone expected to hear a serious, scientific speech. Suddenly everybody heard his clear voice as he spoke into his old transmitter, "Mr. Watson, come here. I want you." He repeated the words which he had said almost forty years ago. Much to the amusement of the people Watson answered, "I would be glad to come, but it would take me a week."

II. Translate from Russian into English.

Александр Белл мечтал стать музыкантом или учителем, а не изобретателем телефона.

В возрасте 25 лет Александр стал проводить опыты по передаче человеческого голоса на длинные расстояния.

Первая телефонная линия была построена в Германии в 1877 г.

В настоящее время проектные бюро по всему миру разрабатывают «видеофоны».

Видеокамера автоматически приспосабливается к различным условиям освещения.

Grammar Study

Согласование времён (Sequence of Tenses)

Сдвиг времен в придаточном дополнительном при главном предложении в прошедшем времени
Present Indefinite → Past Indefinite Present Continuous → Past Continuous	Действие придаточного предложения происходит одновременно с действием главного.
Present Perfect Past Past Indefinite Perfect	Действие придаточного предложения предшествует действию главного.
Future → Future-in-the Past	Действие придаточного предложения совершается позже действия главного.
Употребляя простые предложения в роли придаточных дополнительных при главном предложении в прошедшем времени, сдвигайте времена, как указано в таблице:
Sequence of Tenses
He lives in New York. I thought that he lived in New York	Одновременное действие
Mother is sleeping. I knew that mother was sleeping.	Одновременное действие
He has returned from London. I was told that he had returned from London.	Предшествующее действие
He bought a new car. I heard that he had bought a new car.	Предшествующее действие
He will send us a letter. I supposed that he would send us a letter.	Последующее действие

Прямая и косвенная речь (Direct and Indirect Speech)

Косвенная речь
При переводе предложений в косвенную речь не забывайте заменять обстоятельства времени, как указано в таблице.
Direct speech	Indirect speech
Today yesterday tomorrow … ago this … here last year last month last … next …	that day the day before the next day … before that … there the year before the month before the … before the following …
Indirect commands
He told me: “Keep quiet! Don’t make noise!”	He asked me to keep quiet and not to make noise.

Indirect statements
He said He told me that	“I am an engineer. I work at a plant. In the evening I study English.” he was an engineer and worked at a plant. He added that he studied English in the evening.
He said He told me that	“I saw my friend yesterday.” he had seen his friend the day before.
He said He told me that	“We lived in Rome two years ago. My father workedthere. they had lived in Rome two years before and explained that his father had worked there.
He said He told me that	“I shall tell you about it tomorrow.” he would tell me about it the next day.

Indirect questions
Special questions	He asked (me) He wanted to know He wondered
“Where do you live?” “Where does he work?” “What is Nick doing?” “What have you prepared for today?” “When did you come home yesterday?” “When will your mother come home?”	where I lived. where he worked. what Nick was doing. what I had prepared for that day. when I had come home the day before. when my mother would come home.
General question	He asked (me) He wanted to know He wondered
“Do you play chess?” “Does she go to school?” “Are you listening to me?” “Have you done your homework?” “Did you skate last winter?” “Will you see your friend tomorrow?”	if whether	I played chess. she went to school. I was listening to him. I had done my homework before. I had skated the winter before. I should see my friend the next day.

I. Translate into Russian.

1. I knew that you were ill. 2. I knew that you had been ill. 3. We found that she left home at eight o’clock every morning. 4. We found that she had left home at eight o’clock that morning. 5. When he learnt that his son always received excellent marks in all the subjects at school, he was very pleased. 6. When he learnt that his son had received an excellent mark at school, he was very pleased. 7. We did not know where our friends went every evening. 8. We did not know where our friends had gone. 9. She said that her best friend was a doctor. 10. She said that her best friend had been a doctor. 11. I didn’t know that you worked at the Hermitage. 12. I didn’t know that you had worked at the Hermitage.

II. Convert the following sentences info the past tense.

1. My uncle says he has just come back from the Caucasus. 2. He says he has spent a fortnight in the Caucasus. 3. He says it did him a lot of good. 4. He says he feels better now. 5. He says his wife and he spent most of their time on the beach. 6. He says they did a lot of sightseeing. 7. He says he has a good camera. 8. He says he took many photographs while traveling in the Caucasus. 9. He says he will come to see us next Sunday. 10. He says he will bring and show us the photographs he took during his stay in the Caucasus.

III. Convert the following sentences info the indirect speech.

1. “My friend lives in Moscow”, said Alec. 2. “You have not done your work well”, said the teacher to me. 3. The poor man said to the rich man: “My horse is wild. It can kill your horse.” 4. The rich man said to the judge: “This man’s horse has killed my horse.” 5. “ This man spoke to me on the road,” said the woman. 6. “I can’t explain this rule to you,” said my classmate to me. 7. The teacher said to the class: “We shall discuss this subject tomorrow.” 8. The woman said to her son: “I am glad I am here.” 9. Mike said: “We have bought these books today.” 10. She said to me: “Now I can read your translation.” 11. Our teacher said: “Thackeray’s novels are very interesting.” 12. She said: “You will read this book in a year.” 13. Nellie said: “I read “Jane Eyre” last year.”

IV. Convert the following special questions into the indirect speech.

1. I said to Nick: “Where are you going?” 2. I said to him: “How long will it take you to get there?” 3. Pete said to his friends: “When are you leaving St. Petersburg?” 4. He said: “Who will you see before you leave here?” 5. They said to him: “What time does the train start?” 6. Ann said to Mike: “ When did you leave London?” 7. She said to Boris: “ When will you be back home?”

8. Boris said to them: “How can I get to the railway station?” 9. Mary asked Tom: “What time will you come here tomorrow?” 10. She asked me: “Why didn’t you come here yesterday?” 11. She asked me: “What will you do tomorrow if you are not busy at your office?” 12. I asked Mike: “What will you do after dinner?” 13. I asked my uncle: “How long did you stay in the Crimea?” 14. Ada said to me: “Where did you see such trees?” 15. I said to Becky: “What kind of book has your friend brought you?” 16. Mother said to me: “Who has brought this parcel?” 17. He said to her: “Where do you usually spend your summer holidays?”

V. Convert the following general questions into the indirect speech.

1.I said to Boris: “ Does your friend live in London?” 2. I said to the man: “Are you living in a hotel?” 3. Nick said to his friend: “Will you stay at the “Hilton”?” 4. He said to me: “Do you often go to see your friends?” 5. He said to me: “Will you see your friends before you leave St. Petersburg?” 6. Mike said to Jane: “ Will you come to the railway station to see me off?” 7. She said to me: “ Have you sent them a telegram?” 8. She said to me: “Did you send them a telegram yesterday?” 9. I said to Mike: “ Have you packed your suit-case?” 10. I said to Kate: “Did anybody meet you at the station?” 11. I said to her: “Can you give me their address?” 12. I asked Tom: “ Have you had breakfast?” 13. I asked my sister: “ Will you stay at home or go for a walk after dinner?” 14. I said to my mother: “Did anybody come to see me?” 15. I asked my sister: “ Will Nick call for you on the way to school?” 16. She said to the young man: “Can you call a taxi for me?” 17. Mary said to Peter: “Have you shown your photo to Dick?” 18. Oleg said to me: “Will you come here tomorrow?” 19. He said to us: “Did you go to the museum this morning?”

Причастия (The Participles)

В английском языке имеются причастие I и причастие II (Participle I, Participle II). Первое образуется путем добавления к основе суффикса –ing, второе – суффикса –ed и, таким образом, имеет внешне сходную форму с прошедшим временем Past Indefinite, от которого Participle II отличается по функции в предложении. Для образования Participle II нестандартных глаголов берется III форма.

Формы причастий

Participle I Indefinite	Active	Passive	Выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола-сказуемого.
building	being built
Participle II		built	Выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола-сказуемого или предшествующее ему.
Perfect Participle	having built	having been built	Выражает действие, предшествующее действию глагола-сказуемого.

Употребление Participle I Active и Passive

Функции в предложении и способы перевода

В предложении Participle I Active может быть:

1. Определением.

Переводится причастием действительного залога с суффиксами –ущ, -ющ, -ащ, -ящ, -вш, -ш или определительным придаточным предложением. В функции определения Participle I может стоять перед определяемым словом или после него.

They were watching the dancingchildren.

Они наблюдали за танцующими детьми.

2. Обстоятельством (времени, причины, образа действия).

Переводится деепричастием с суффиксами –а, -я, -ав, -ив или обстоятельственным придаточным предложением.

Being familiar with the problem he didn’t find it interesting.

Так как он был знаком с проблемой, он не нашел ее интересной.

Participle I с союзами when (когда) и while (в то время как) переводится:

a) деепричастием (или деепричастным оборотом) при этом союз опускается;

придаточным предложением с союзами когда, в то время как;

с) при + существительное.

When combining chemically hydrogen and oxygen form water.	Вступая в химическую реакцию, водород и кислород образуют воду. (Когда водород и кислород вступают в химическую реакцию, они образуют воду).
While making his experiment the lab assistant put down all the necessary data.	Проводя опыт, лаборант записывал все необходимые данные. (В то время как лаборант проводил опыт, он записывал … При проведении опыта … .)

3. Частью сказуемого во временах группы Continuous и Perfect Continuous.

Переводится глаголом в личной форме.

He is playing football now.

Сейчас он играет в футбол.

Употребление Participle II

Функции в предложении и способы перевода

В предложении Participle II может быть:

1. Определением.

Переводится причастием страдательного залога с суффиксами-окончаниями -нный, -емый, -имый, -тый, шийся, -вшийся. В функции определения Participle II может стоять перед определяемым словом или после него.

The devices produced by our plant are of improved quality.	Приборы, выпускаемые нашим заводом, улучшенного качества.
The information obtained is of great importance.	Полученная информация – очень важна.

Обратите особое внимание на перевод предложений, в которых за подлежащим следуют два слова с окончанием ~ed. Первое из них обычно является определением в форме Participle II и при переводе ставится перед определяемым словом, второе является сказуемым в Past Indefinitе.

The problem considered called everybody’s attention.

Рассматриваемая проблема привлекла всеобщее внимание.

Обстоятельством.

Перед Participle II в функции обстоятельства обычно стоят союзы when (когда), if (если), unless (если не), as (как). Такой причастный оборот переводится, как правило, придаточным обстоятельственным предложением, а иногда при+существительное.

As seen from the article these engines are produced in Minsk.	Как видно из статьи, эти двигатели изготавливаются в Минске.
When heated the polymer changed its properties completely.	Когда полимер нагрели, он полностью изменил свои cвойства. (При нагревании полимер …)
When designed the car was given to the laboratory.	Когда машина была сконструирована, ее отдали в лабораторию.