Saying what you think is true

1. This leads us to believe that...
2. It is very possible that...
3. In view of these facts, it is quite likely that...

Certainty

1. Doubtless,...
2. One cannot deny that...
3. It is (very) clear from these observations that...

Doubt

1. All the same, it is possible that...
2. It is difficult to believe that...

Accepting other points to certain degree

1. One can agree up to a certain point with...
2. Certainly,... However,...
3. It cannot be denied that...

Emphasising particular points

1. The last example highlights that fact that...
2. Not only... but also...
3. We would even go so far as to say that...

Moderating, agreeing, disagreeing

1. By and large...
2. Perhaps we should also point out the fact that...
3. It would be unfair not to mention that fact that...
4. One must admit that...
5. We cannot ignore the fact that...
6. One cannot possibly accept the fact that...

Consequences

1. From these facts, one may conclude that...
2. That is why, in our opinion, ...
3. Which seems to confirm the idea that...
4. Thus,.../ Therefore,...

Comparison

1. Some critics suggest..., whereas others...
2. Compared to...
3. On the one hand there is the firm belief that... On the other hand, many people are convinced that...

B. Phrases For Balanced Arguments

Introduction

1. It is often said that...
2. It is undeniable that...
3. It is a well-known fact that...
4. One of the most striking features of this text is...

Thesis

1. The first thing that needs to be said is...
2. First of all, let us try to analyse...
3. One argument in support of...
4. We must distinguish carefully between...
5. The second reason for...
6. An important aspect of the text is...
7. It is worth stating at this point that...

Antithesis

1. On the other hand, we can observe that...
2. The other side of the coin is, however, that...
3. Another way of looking at this question is to...

Conclusion

1. What conclusions can be drawn from all this?
2. The most satisfactory conclusion that we can come to is...
3. To sum up... we are convinced that.../ ...we believe that.../ ...we have to accept that...

C. Remarks

Verbs

The quickest way to improve your writing is by paying attention to verbs.

· English is a language rich in verbs, so the use of vague verbs or long verb phrases is unnecessary. Simply converting "takes a look at" to "examines," "talks about in detail" to "analyzes," etc. will make a difference in your prose.

· Weak action verbs (such as do, get, have, go, make, say, etc.) can often be replaced by stronger ones ("has," for example, can be replaced by words like "displays," "exemplifies," "demonstrates," etc.).

· Weak action verbs paired with an adverb can usually be treated similarly ("talk heatedly," for instance, becomes "argue"), as can those paired with a noun ("make an argument" becomes "argue," "give an explanation" becomes "explain," etc.).

· And as much as possible, make sure your verbs are in the active voice: "He threw the ball" (active voice) rather than "The ball was thrown by him" (passive voice). As you can see, passive voice is wordier and less direct.

(a) Sentence variety

Make sure there's some variety in the length and types of your sentences. Work at occasionally opening a sentence with something other than the subject. Student writers often tend to write strings of short, simple sentences. This makes the paper choppy and makes the ideas sound simpleminded. If choppy sentences are a problem, combine some of them into longer and more complex.

Appendix 3. WRITING SAMPLES

1. А сurriculum vitae

Curriculum Vitae Name:Steven Bradley Date of Birth:6 December 1964 Address:21, Tiffen Avenue, Gloucester Education/Qualifications: 1976-1983 Riverside Secondary School, Gloucester GCSEs: Maths, Economics, English, Computing, History, Political Science, Japanese, Asian Studies 'A' Levels: Maths (B), Economics (B), General Studies (B), Business Studies (B) 1983-1987 B.Sc in Business Studies — University of Wales Work Experience: April 1993 - Sept 1997 Assistant Managing Director, Melton Enterprises, London Sept 1989 - April 1993 Market Researcher, BLD Services, Oxford June 1987 - Aug 1989 Trainee Market Researcher, The Yen Company, Tokyo Other Information: • Basic Japanese • Full, clean driving licence • Interests: sailing, cooking, jogging, karate Referees: Carl Spencer (President) BLD Services 2, Downing St, Oxford Susan Marcus (Managing Director) Melton Enterprises 42, St Catherines St, London

1. For and against composition

Stress - For and Against You come home from work feeling as though you have been run through the spin cycle of your washing machine. You can't wait to take off your shoes and pour yourself a (stiff ) cool drink. Stress! Everybody knows what stress is. Stress is an integral part of our urban lifestyle. It has become a normal part of life, although it is generally known that stress is bad for health. But, doesn't stress also have advantages? Is stress the same as burden? What is stress? First of all we want to make clear what exactly stress is. The body's adaptive response to abnormal circumstances (like threats or demands) from a new or changing situation is called stress. The term "stress" refers both to certain heightened mental and body states and to the causes of such states. Nowadays the symptoms of stress are well known. When the human body is under stress (whether it is real or imaginary) Adrenaline is poured into the bloodstream. As a result of that the pulse quickens, the blood pressure raises and the muscle tension increases. Furthermore you may feel more criticised by others, become more pessimistic, cynical, or resentful than usual. Things you normally look forward to may seem like a burden. A lot of people are not aware of being under stress. Some are frequently under so much stress that they assume the feeling is normal. Pros By hearing the word "stress" most people think of something unpleasant and bad. But that is only conditionally true. Stress has also several positive aspects: - A lot of people (students!) take stress as a replacement for self-discipline. They just can't start working without time- pressure. They need to know a certain date when they must finish their work.. (like students before a test) - It is known, that people work better, faster and more effective under stress. There are people, who are even more creative under stress! This is because of the height Adrenaline content into your bloodstream. - Stress is said to be the best sport doping (Adrenaline). During a sport activity, Stress encourages and raises the attention / strength. Under stress the human body is able to do better to do better physical achievements. Last but not least, some producers of stress (such as physical exercise, various emotional states, and creative activity) are usually very healthy! But be careful, continuous high levels of stress are not. On the other hand, stress has much more disadvantages than advantages. - Stress is bad for your health! A lot of people react to stress with aggressiveness, competitiveness, and self-imposed pressure to get things done. This behaviour has been linked to increased rates of heart attack, high blood pressure and other diseases. Stress can also affect the immune system, causing the body to be less resistant to a wide range of other health problems. - Most people can't think clear under stress. They make false decision and work superficial (slapdash). Stress causes reduced concentration ability. - Stress doesn't only affect you, it also has an effect on your environment. If you're under stress and nervous, your (school/work) friends automatically become like you. A stressed person has a bad influence on the work/school atmosphere. A lot of friendship have broken down because of excessive stress. Ending It is said, that stress is the most common "illness" at the moment. I am not of the same opinion. As I look at it, everybody reacts different to stress. While some people become aggressive and nervous, other people may be equally serious in their intentions, but are more patient. So, it is not possible to say, whether stress is good or bad. It just depends on the person. Furthermore I think that stress is unavoidable nowadays. But if you're once under stress, try to manage it the best possible. Why not making stress work for you as a source of energy? Better you use your energies by being creative than wasting them by getting furious.

3. A letter of application: A formal letter of application is written when applying for a job or a place on an educational course. A job application usually includes educational/professional qualifications, details of previous experience as well as the applicant's qualities and skills. Previous experience should be presented in a clear order using linking words such as: currently, before this, subsequently, prior to this, following, whereupon, etc.

Useful Language: Applying for Jobs

To begin letters:

I am writing to apply for the post/position of... advertised in yesterday's ... I am writing in connection with/with regard to the vacancy in your Sales Department, as advertised in The Times on/of 14th October.

Experience/Qualifications:

I am currently/At present I am employed/working as ...

I was employed as (position) by (company) from (date) to (date)...

During this time, I held the position of .../was responsible for .../my duties included …

I have received training in .../completed an apprenticeship, etc ...

My qualifications include .../I am presently studying/attending a course ... I am due to take my final examinations in June... I have/hold/obtained/was awarded a degree/diploma/certificate in ...I have successfully/recently completed a course in (subject) at (place).

To end letters:

I enclose/Please find enclosed my CV/references from ... I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience/as soon as possible. I would be available for an interview at any time/until the end of June/etc. I would be pleased/happy to supply you with any further information/details ... Please contact me should you have any further questions/queries.

Introduction

Paragraph 1: state reason(s) for writing

Main Body

Paragraphs 2-3-4-5*: education & qualifications, previous experience, personal qualities, suitability

Conclusion

Final Paragraph: closing remarks

Full name

* The exact number and divi­sion of paragraphs and the order of presenting infor­mation will depend on the specific instructions for each letter-writing task.

Dear Mrs Lloyd,   I am writing to apply for the position of Marketing Manager in your Tokyo office, as advertised in last week's Guardian newspaper on 9th October. As outlined in my curriculum vitae, which I have enclosed, I attended Riverside Secondary School in Gloucester where I completed my GCSE and 'A' Level studies. In 1987, I graduated from the University of Wales with a BSc in Business Studies and Marketing. After graduation, I moved to Tokyo where I trained as a market researcher for the Yen Company for two years. On my return to England, I continued working as a market researcher until 1993 when I obtained my present position. I am currently employed as Assistant Managing Director at Melton Enterprises, where my duties include the organisation of staff and stock, as well as the allocation of budget within the sales department. I am also responsible for overseeing the whole business, and am generally noted for my good organisational and managerial skills. I believe that I would be an ideal candidate for the position you have out­lined, as I have had extensive marketing training with a well-known Japanese marketing and public relations firm. My time spent living in Tokyo also ensured that I obtained a valuable insight into Japanese culture and working practices. I also have a number of very good business contacts in Tokyo, as well as a basic understanding of the Japanese language which is necessary if one is to be able to work effectively. Finally, I am willing and able to relo­cate at short notice, which I understand to be a requirement of the position. I enclose my curriculum vitae and photograph as requested, and I would be happy to supply you with further details should they be required. I thank you for considering my application and am willing to attend an interview at any time. Yours sincerely, Steven Bradley

1. A memo

MEMO To: Katherine Chu, Regional Manager From: Stephen Yu, Sales Date: 29 September 2010 Subject: Notification of My Resignation I am writing to inform you of my intention to resign from G & S Holdings. I have appreciated very much my four years working for the company. The training has been excellent and I have gained valuable experience working within an efficient and professional team environment. In particular, I have appreciated your personal guidance during these first years of my career. I feel now that it is time to further develop my knowledge and skills base in a different environment. I would like to leave, if possible, in a month's time on Saturday, 30 October. This will allow me to complete my current workload. I hope that this suggested arrangement is acceptable to the company. Once again, thank you for your support.

To:	My darling Jane
From:	John
Date:	Yes, please ;-)
Subject:	Chocolate

I had a great time last night, let's do it again soon.
Hope you like this chocolate.

Love, John

1. A proposal

To: Mr S. finch, Principal From: Hugh Jones, Year One Subject: Suggestions for ‘Topical Issues’ Course Date: 5 November 2010   Introduction The information below is in support of three subjects that, in my opinion, should be covered in the proposed Topical Issues classes in the college. World Debt One subject that would be useful addition to the curriculum is a study of world debt. Although we are all very aware of the poverty gap, I believe that very few of us fully comprehend this complex issue. If it were to be included as part of the course, I think it would be very educational. A greater understanding of the situation and the reasons behind it could even go some way towards helping to find solutions to this unacceptable situation. Crime This is an issue which I feel is relevant to the majority of students. It would be beneficial to examine this subject from the perspective of, say, psychology or sociology. To my mind, only by examining the motivation behind offences can we fully understand the problem and concentrate on the important matters of protection and prevention. Environmental Concerns Another area that I consider to be worthy of further investigation is that of the imminent dangers to the environment. Many of us intend to take up positions in commerce or industry and since environmentally friendly policies are being increasingly adopted by companies, it is vital that we are aware of the latest developments. Furthermore, such knowledge could help to avert a potential ecological disaster. Benefits Apart from the specific benefits mentioned above, I am convinced that the running of such a course would be of use to students. Not only will these subjects be helpful in our future careers, but I anticipate that they will also provide us with a better understanding of the society we live in.

REFERENCES

1. Acklam, R. First certificate Gold. Coursebook / R. Acklam, S. Burges. – Longman, 1996. – 191 c.

2. Kerr, P. Straightforward. Intermediate Student’s Book / P. Kerr, C. Jones. – Macmillan, 2006. – 187 c.

3. Kerr, P. Straightforward. Workbook / P. Kerr, C. Jones. – Macmillan, 2006. – 178 c.

4. McCarthy, M. English Vocabulary in Use. Advanced / M. McCarthy, F. O’Dell. – Cambridge University Press, 2003. – 296 c.

5. www.breakingnewsenglish.com