Criminology in the United States

American _______ (crime) developed a _______ (collect) of theories of criminal analyser based upon very different _______ (discipline) _______ (assume). Eventually, sociology came to ______ (dominance) the emerging field of criminology in the United States. Most of the _____ (popularity) theories emphasized the role of ______ (society) factors in ______ (courage) criminal analyser. Italian scholars and their _____ (succeed) in Europe did very little _____ (empiticism) testing of theories. They followed methods of ______ (deduce) and argument. American ______ (practice) adopted a more _____ (science) approach to building theory, emphasizing the collection and _____ (analyse) of data on the social cases of _____ (crime) conduct.

Внеаудиторная работа

GRAMMAR SECTION

Grammar to be revised: The Passive Voice.

Ex. 1. Translate the sentences used in the Passive Voice. Ask and answer different types of questions working in pairs.

1. The Law is based upon the recorded experiences of society and the community in their efforts to define and regulate the relationships between their members.

2. In ancient times laws were derived from old customs and in some cases were codified by the order of a strong ruler, and then they became known under the ruler’s name, like Hammurabi’s Code of Laws or Justinian’s Digest.

3. Though in many cases the names of ancient lawgivers are unknown, their teachings have been known to millions of people.

4. Besides strictly religious commandments, there are those that are willingly accepted by most people: to show honour and devotion to our parents, not to murder, not to be unfaithful to our spouses, not to steal, not to bear false witness not to desire greedily anything that belongs to our neighbours.

5. The Koran is considered the most revered book among Muslims. The Koran is the basis of Islamic law, the Sharia.

6. Another ancient law the initiator of which is unknown is the law of the talion: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.

Ex. 2. Express the same idea using the Passive Voice and translate the sentences into Russian.

Model: The society has established the criminal law to maintain peace and order. (The criminal law …)

The criminal law has been established to maintain peace and order.

1. The civil law is the portion of the law which defines and determines the rights of the individual in protecting his person and his property.

2. The criminal law protects society and the community from the injurious and harmful acts of individuals.

3. People use the word ’law’ to mean many things.

4. Generally we use the word ’law’ to indicate all law and we also use it to mean a single enactment of a lawmaking body, a statute.

5. Parliament makes laws, and they constitute parliamentary or statutory law.

6. In all societies prescriptive laws regulate relations between people.

Ex. 3.Give answers to the following questions using the Passive Voice.

1. Are all legislators’ names remembered in history? In what cases are they remembered?

2. What principle is the law of the talion based on?

3. How are most legal systems classified?

4. What has the Common Law of England been developed from?

5. Why is the English system called the Common Law system? Is it applied throughout the country?

6. What law is used by the countries which were colonized at some time by Britain?

Ex. 4.Use the verbs given in brackets in the Passive Voice. Translate the sentences.

1. The English legal system (to condition) by two basic concerns.

2. The law should (to administer) by the state so that it could (to apply) evenly over the whole country in order to satisfy its two main functions of control and service.

3. The principle of judicial independence (not to achieve) until 1701, when the Act of Settlement made judges irremovable from office, except by an appeal to the monarch from both Houses of Parliament.

4. Common law originally (to base) on medieval customs and conventions that (to establish) by the Norman kings.

5. Parts of common law (to abolish) by Parliament and (to replace) by statute law.

6. Certain changes to the United Kingdom law (to make) to bring it in line with rulings of the Council of European Court of Human Rights.

Ex. 5. Use the verbs either in the Active or Passive Voice.

1. The present British legal system (to form) the basis of the Judiciary – the third branch of government – and (to comprise) three separate systems – that for England and Wales, that for Scotland and that for Northern Ireland.

2. The law as a whole (to consist) partly of statutes, or Acts of Parliament, and partly of common law.

3. Modern statutes usually (to bring) into effect by an order made by a minister of the Crown..

4. The County Courts (to establish) for hearing both criminal and civil cases.

5. Common Law (to be) fundamentally judge-made law which (to develop) over many centuries.

6. By 1250 a common law (to promote) and (to rule) the whole country.

Ex. 6.Translate into English.

1. В законах отражаются различные ценности общества.

2. Законы основываются на моральных, экономических, политических и социальных ценностях общества.

3. Бесплатное образование и медицинское обслуживание гарантированы законами многих стран.

4. С течением времени меняются социальные ценности, вслед за этим также изменяются законы.

5. Задолго до того, как европейцы поселились на Американском континенте, во многих племенах порядок поддерживался системой традиционных неписаных законов.

6. Взаимоотношения между отдельными людьми и группами людей регулируются гражданским правом.