Morphological composition

§ 246. Most of the common English prepositions aresimple in structure:

out, in, for, on, about, but (в значении кроме, исключая), against.

Derived prepositions are formed from other words, mainly participles:

excepting, concerning, considering, following, including, during, depending, granted, past, except.

There are also manycompound prepositions:

within, outside, upon, onto, throughout, alongside, wherewith, whereof, whereupon, herein, hereafter, withall.

Composite orphrasal prepositions include a word of another class and one or two prepositions, as in by virtue of, but for, because of, by means of, instead of, in lieu of, prior to, on account of, abreast of, thanks to, with reference to, opposite to, in front of, for the sake of, in view of, in spite of, in preference to, in unison with, for the sake of, except for, due to, in addition to, with regard to, on behalf of, in line with, at variance with.

A composite preposition is indivisible both syntactically and semantically, that is, no element of it can be varied, abbreviated, or extended according to the normal rules of syntax. Thus in the composite preposition for the sake of neither the definite article nor the preposition can be re­placed by words of similar meaning.

Semantic characteristics

§ 247. Semantically prepositions form a varied group of words. Most of them are polysemantic (in, to, for, at, from), their original meaning having become vague, others have retained their full meaning and are accordingly monosemantic (down, over, across, off, till, until, save, near, along, among, despite, during, etc.). This also applies to prepositions borrowed from Latin: versus, via, plus, minus.

Relations expressed by prepositions may be of various types:

1) agentive - the letter was sentby a friend of mine;

2) attributive - a drawingin crayon, the peoplein question (люди, о которых идет речь);

3) possessive and partial relations - one of my friends, the roof of the house, a glassof brandy, a declinein

waste, a risein production;

4) relation indicating origin, material, or source - agirl from Brighton, made of gold:

5) objective relation – don’t be angrywith me, I'II lookinto the matter, to workat a book, to speakon the

matter(about the matter,of the matter);

6) relation indicating to whom the action is directed - to show ittohim, to give lessons to the children;

7) instrumental relation - to writewith a pencil, to cutwith a knife;

8) relation of subordination - to be secretaryto a Minister;

9) relation defining the sphere or field of activity - the country depends on exportsfor its food; Tom is good

at football;

10) relation of involvement or association - to cooperatewith some­body; coffee with cream, to compare this

with that, to get involved in a discussion;

11) respective relation - he is bigfor a youngster, I did not know I had a blackguard for a son;

12) relation of resemblance - he islike his father;

13) relation of dissociation and differentiation - to disburden oneself of one’s past; to be devoid of

something, to disentangle oneself from something; to know something from something, to deduce from

something;

14) various adverbial relations:

a) of manner, means, style and language -with diligence,bytelegram,in slang,in bad print,in a neat

hand.

in good style,inbrief;

b) of purpose or aim - to sendfor the doctor, he did itfor fun, the police wereafter the criminal;

c) temporal relations. These may be subdivided into those denoting precedence, sequence, duration, etc. -

in good time,at 5 o’clock, before the dawn;

d) of cause or reason - I did itout of fear,through his negligence, I despise youfor this;

e) spacial relation, including directional relation -past the gate, by the window,across the river,at the

gate;

f) concessive relation -in spite of the bad weather,despite ourprotests,for all his attempts,with all her

diligence.

The relations enumerated above to a great degree depend on the meaning of the words connected by prepositions. Sometimes the relation indicated by a preposition is too abstract to be defined in words, as its use is often figurative or metaphorical, as in:

He broke awayfrom themon some vague pretext.

The role of the preposition is difficult to define when it introduces predicatives, when its meaning is

‘in the capasity of’, ‘in the role of’, ‘having the quality of’.

As a friend he was admirable, but one cannot praise him as a husband.

His careeras a lawyer was short.

We regard himas a fool.

She went to the ball with her auntas chaperone.

When a preposition is used figuratively, the concept expressed by the preposition may be so blurred or weak that one preposition may be replaced by another without any essential alteration to the relation between the words. Thus the following words may be used with different prepositions without change of meaning:

aversion from, to

disgust against, at, towards

repugnance against, for, to

along, down, over the centuries

Words of the same root can be used with different prepositions:

to pride oneself on, to be proudof, pridein;

to confidein, confidencein, to be confidentof.