Regular and irregular verbs

§ 6. Owing to the historical development of the verb system the English verbs fall into two groups: regular and irregular verbs.

The regular verbs, which go back to the Germanic weak verbs, constitute the largest group. The past indefinite and participle II of these verbs are formed by means of the dental suffix -ed added to the stem of the verb. This is the productive pattern according to which all new verbs form their past indefinite and participle II.

The irregular verbs form their past indefinite and participle II according tо some fixed traditional patterns going back partly to the Germanic strong verbs, partly to the weak verbs, which underwent some changes in the process of history.

The irregular verbs are about 250 in number. They can be arranged according to sound changes.

The list of irregular verbs arranged according to sound changes

Infinitive	Past Indefinite	Participle II	Translation
[ɪ]	[æ]	[ʌ]
begin [bɪgɪn]	began [bɪ'gæn]	begun [bɪ'gʌn]	начинать
drink [dnɪŋk]	drank [dræŋk]	drunk [drʌŋk]	пить
ring [rɪŋ]	rang [гæŋ]	rung [rʌŋ]	звонить
shrink [∫rɪnk]	shrank [sræŋk]	shrunk [∫rʌŋk]	сокращать(ся)
sing [sɪŋ]	sang [sæŋ]	sung [sʌŋ]	петь
sink [sɪŋk]	sank [sæŋk]	sunk [sʌŋk]	тонуть
spring [sprɪŋ]	sprang [spræŋ]	sprung [sprʌŋ]	прыгать
stink [stɪŋk]	stank [stæŋk]	stunk [stʌŋk]	вонять
swim [swɪm]	swam [swæm]	swum [swʌm]	плавать
[ɪ]	[ʌ]	[ʌ]
dig [dɪg]	dug [dʌg]	dug [dʌg]	копать
fling [flɪn]	flung [flʌŋ]	flung [flʌŋ]	кидать(ся)
spin [spɪn]	spun [spʌn]	spun [spʌn]	прясть
stick [stɪk]	stuck [stʌk]	stuck [stʌk]	втыкать
sting [stɪŋ]	stung [stʌŋ]	stung [stʌŋ]	жалить
swing [swɪŋ]	swung [swʌŋ]	swung [swʌŋ]	качать(ся)
win [wɪn]	won [wʌn]	won [wʌn]	побеждать
wring [rɪŋ]	wrung [гʌŋ]	wrung [rʌŋ]	скручивать
[ɪ]	[æ]	[æ]
sit [sɪt]	sat [sæt]	sat [sæt]	сидеть
spit [spɪt]	spat [spæt]	spat [spæt]	плеватъ(ся)
[i:]	[e]	[e]
bleed [bl:d]	bled [bled]	bled [bled]	кровоточить
breed [bri:d]	bred [bred]	bred [bred]	выводить, разводить
			(животных)
feed [fi:d]	fed [fed]	fed [fed]	кормить
lead [li:d]	led [led]	led [led]	вести
meet [mi:t]	met [met]	met [met]	встречать(ся)
read [ri:d]	read [red]	read [red]	читать
speed [spi:d]	sped [sped]	sped [sped]	спешить
[е] get [get]	[ɔ] got [gɔt]	[ɔ] got [gɔt]	получать
[æ] hang [hæŋ]	[ʌ] 1) hung [hʌŋ] 2) hanged [hæŋd]	[ʌ] hung [hʌŋ] hanged [hæŋd]	вешать вешать (казнить)
[aɪ] bind [baɪnd] ] find [faɪnd] grind [graɪnd] wind [waɪnd]	[au]   bound [baund] found [faund] ground [graund] wound [waund]	[au]   bound [baund] found [faund] ground [graund] wound [waund]	связывать находить молоть виться
[aɪ] light [laɪt] slide [slaɪd]	[ɪ] lit [lɪt] slid [slɪd]	[ɪ] lit [lɪt] slid [slɪd]	светить, зажигать скользить
[aɪ] shine [∫aɪn]	[ɔ] shone [∫ɔ n]	[ɔ] shone [∫ɔn]	светить, сиять
[aɪ] fight [faɪt]	[ɔ:] fought [f ɔ:t]	[ɔ :] fought [f ɔ:t]	бороться
[aɪ] strike [straɪk]	[ʌ] struck [strʌk]	[ʌ] struck [strʌk]	ударять(ся)
[ou] hold [hould]	[e] held [held]	[e] held [held]	держать
[u:] shoot [∫u:t]	[ɔ] shot[∫ɔ t]	[ɔ] shot [∫ɔ t]	стрелять
[i:] creep [kri:p] keep [ki:p] leap [li:p]	[e] crept [krept] kept [kept] leapt [lept] leaped	[e] crept [krept] kept [kept] leapt [lept] leaped	ползать держать   прыгать
[i:] sweep [swi:p]   sleep [sli:p] weep [wi:p]	[e] swept [swept]   slept [slept] wept [wept]	[e] swept [swept]   slept [slept] wept [wept]	мести, подметать спать плакать, рыдать
[e]	[ou]	[ou]
sell [sel]	sold [sould]	sold [sould]	продавать
tell [tel]	told [tould]	told [tould]	говорить
[i:]	[e]	[e]
flee [fli:]	fled [fled]	fled [fled]	бежать,
			спасаться
			бегством
[ɪǝ]	[ǝ:]	[ǝ:]
hear [hɪǝ]	heard [hǝ:d]	heard [hǝ:d]	слышать
[eɪ]	[e]	[e]
say [seɪ]	said [sed]	said [sed]	говорить,
			сказать
[i:]	[e]	[e]
deal [di:l]	dealt [delt]	dealt [delt]	раздавать,
			распределять
dream [dri:m]	dreamt [dremt] dreamed	dreamt [dremt] dreamed	видеть сны; мечтать
feel [fi:l]	felt [felt]	felt [felt]	чувствовать
kneel [ni:l]	knelt [nelt]	knelt [nelt]	преклонять
			колени
lean [li:n]	leant [lent]	leant [lent]	наклоняться
mean [mi:n]	meant [ment]	meant [ment]	значить
[aɪ]	[ɔ :]	[ɔ :]
buy [baɪ]	bought [bɔ :t]	bought [b ɔ:t]	покупать
[i:]	[e]	[e]
leave [li:v]	left [left]	left [left]	покидать
[u:]	[ɔ ]	[ɔ]
lose [lu:z]	lost [lɔst]	lost [lɔst]	терять
[aɪ]	[ou]	[I]
drive [draɪv]	drove [drouv]	driven ['drɪvn]	вести, ехать
			(в экипаже,
			автомобиле
			и т. д.)
ride [raɪd]	rode [roud]	ridden [ 'rɪdn]	ехать верхом
rise [raɪz]	rose [rouz]	risen [ 'rɪzn]	подниматься,
			вставать
write [raɪt] 4 f\	wrote [rout]	written ['rɪtn]	писать
[aɪ] flу [flaɪ]	[u:] flew [flu:]	[ou] flown [floun]	летать
[i:] freeze [fri:z] speak [spi:k] steal [sti:l] weave [wi:v]	[ou] froze [frouz] spoke [spouk] stole [stoul] wove [wouv]	[ou] frozen ['frouzn] spoken [ spoukǝn] stolen ['stoulǝn] woven [ 'wouvǝn]	морозить разговаривать красть ткать
[eɪ] break [breɪk]	[ou] broke [brouk]	[ou] broken ['broukǝn]	ломать
[e] forget [fǝ'get]	[ ɔ] forgot [fǝ'gɔt]	[ ɔ] forgotten [fǝ'gɔtǝn]	забывать
[ɛǝ] swear [swɛǝ] tear [t ɛə]	[ɔ :] swore [sw ɔ:] tore [tɔ :]	[ ɔ:] sworn [sw ɔ:n] torn [tɔ :n]	клясться рвать
[aɪ] lie [laɪ]	[eɪ] lay [leɪ]	[eɪ] lain [Ieɪn]	лежать
[aɪ] bite [baɪt] hide [haɪd]	[ɪ] bit [bɪt] hid [hɪd]	[ɪ] bitten ['bɪtn] hidden ['hɪdn]	кусать(ся) прятать(ся)
[u:] choose [t∫u:z]	[ou] chose [t∫ouz]	[ou] chosen ['t∫ouzǝn]	выбирать
[i:] see [si:]	[ɔ:] saw [sɔ:]	[i:] seen [si:n]	видеть
[i:] eat [i:t]	[e] ate [et]	[i:] eaten ['i:tn]	есть
[ɪ] forbid [fe'bɪd] forgive [fǝ'gɪv] give [gɪv]	[eɪ] forbade [fo'beɪd] forgave [fǝ'geɪv] gave [geɪv]	[ɪ] forbidden [fǝ'bidǝn] forgiven [fǝ'gɪvn] given ['gɪvn]	запрещать забывать давать
[eɪ] shake [∫eɪk] take [teik]	[u] shook [∫uk] took [tuk]	[eɪ] shaken ['∫eɪkn] taken ['teɪkn]	трясти брать
[ɔ:] fall [fɔ:l]	[e] fell [fel]	[ɔ:] fallen [fɔ:lǝn]	падать
[ɔ:] draw [drɔ:]	[u:l drew [dru:]	[ɔ:] drawn [drɔ:n]	рисовать
[ou] blow [blou] grow [grou] know [nou] throw [θrou]	[u:] blew [blu:] grew [gru:] knew [nju:] threw [θru:]	[ou] blown [bloun] grown [groun] known [noun] thrown [θroun]	дуть расти знать бросать
[e] swell [swel]	[e] swelled [sweld]	[ou] swollen ['swoulǝn]	надувать(ся)
[eɪ] make [meɪk]	[eɪ] made [meɪd]	[eɪ] made [meɪd]	делать
[ɪ] bring [brɪŋ] think [θiŋk]	[ɔ:] brought [brɔ:t] thought [θɔ:t]	[ɔ:] brought [brɔ:t] thought [θɔ:t]	нести думать
[i:] teach [ti:t∫]	[ɔ:] taught [tɔ:t]	[ɔ:] taught [tɔ:t]	учить
[æ] catch [kæt∫]	[ɔ:] caught [kɔ:t]	[ɔ:] caught [kɔ:t]	хватать
[æ] stand [stænd] understand [ʌnde'stænd]	[u] stood [stud] understood [ʌndǝ'stud]	[u] stood [stud] understood [ʌndǝ'stud]	стоять понимать
[d] build [bɪId] lend [lend]   mend [mend] spend [spend] send [send]	[t] built [bɪlt] lent [lent]   ment [ment] spent [spent] sent [sent]	[t] built [bɪlt] lent [lent]   ment [ment] spent [spent] sent [sent]	строить одалживать, сдавать в аренду   чинить тратить, расходовать посылать
bet [bet] burst [bǝ:st]	bet [bet] burst [bǝ:st]	bet [bet] burst [bǝ:st]	держать пари лопаться; взрываться (о снаряде)
cost [kɔst]	cost [kɔst]	cost [kɔst]	стоить,
			обходиться
cut [kʌt]	cut [kʌt]	cut [kʌt]	резать
hit [hɪt]	hit [hɪt]	hit [hɪt]	ударять
hurt [hǝ:t]	hurt [hǝ:t]	hurt [hǝ:t]	причинять боль
let [let]	let [let]	let [let]	позволять, разрешать
put [put]	put [put]	put [put]	класть, положить
shut [∫ʌt]	shut [∫ʌt]	shut [∫ʌt]	закрывать(ся)
split [splɪt]	split [splɪt]	split [splɪt]	раскладывать(ся)
spread [spred]	spread [spred]	spread [spred]	развертываться
upset [ʌр'set]	upset [ʌp'set]	upset [ʌp'set]	опрокидывать (ся)
			расстраивать,
			нарушать (порядок)

Pronunciation rules of the suffix –ed

The suffix -ed is pronounced in three ways:

1) [id] when the verb stem ends in the dental consonants [d] or [t]:

skate - skated chat - chatted

decide – decided end - ended

2) [d] when the stem ends in any voiced sound except [d]:

live – lived travel - travelled

stay - stayed change – changed

3) [t]when the stem ends in any voiceless sound except [t]:

talk - talked stop - stopped

wish – wished place – placed

Spelling rules of the verb forms with the suffix –ed

1) The letter -d is added to stems ending in -e:

skate - skated

free – freed

2) In all the other cases the letters -edare added:

stay - stayed

talk – talked

The final consonant letter is doubled if it is single and follows a short vowel in a stressed syllable:

nod - nodded stop- stopped stir - stirred

permit - permitted refer - referred compel- compelled

The final - l is doubled even in an unstressed syllable (British English):

travel - travelled

cancel – cancelled

In some words the final -p is doubled in the same position:

kidnap - kidnapped handicap – handicapped

worship – worshipped

The final -y is changed to -i if it is preceded by a consonant:

cry – cried

reply – replied

Formation of participle I

§ 7. Participle I of both regular and irregular verbs is composed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. In writing the following rules of spelling are observed:

1) if the stem ends in a mute -e, the -e is dropped before adding -ing:

skate - skating

2) if the stem ends in a single consonant letter preceded by a short vowel of a stressed syllable, the consonant letter is doubled:

stop - stopping nod - nodding stir – stirring

permit – permitting refer - referring compel – compelling

3) if the stem ends in -l after a short vowel of an unstressed syllable, the -l is doubled (in British English):

travel – travelling

cancel – cancelling

The same refers to some words ending in -p:

kidnap - kidnapping handicap- handicapping

worship – worshipping

4) verbs ending in -ie drop the final -e and change i into у before taking the suffix -ing:

lie – lying

die – dying

Note:

The same rules apply to the formation of the gerund.

Semantic classifications of the verb

§ 8. Semantic classifications of the verb may be undertaken from different standpoints.

Grammatically important is the devision of verbs into the following classes:

Actional verbs, which denote actions proper (do, make, go, read, etc.) and statal verbs, which denote state (be, exist, lie, sit, know, etc.) or relations (fit, belong, have, match, cost, etc.). The difference in their categorical meaning affects their morphological paradigm: statal and relational verbs have no passive voice (though some have forms coinciding with the passive voice as in The curtains and the carpet were matched). Also statal and relational verbs generally are not used in the continuous and perfect continuous tenses. Their occasional use in these tenses is always exceptional and results in the change of meaning.

From the syntactic standpoint verbs may be subdivided into transivite(переходные) and intransitive(непереходные) ones.

Without the object the meaning of the transitive verb is incomplete or entirely different. Transitive verbs may be followed:

a) by one direct object (monotransitive verbs);

Jane is helping her sister.

b) by a direct and an indirect objects (ditransitive verbs);

Jane gave her sister an apple.

c) by a prepositional object (prepositional transitive verbs):

Jane looks after her sister.

Intransitive verbs do not require any object for the completion of their meaning:

The sun is rising.

There are many verbs in English that can function as both transitive and intransitive.

Tom is writing a letter. (transitive)

Tom writes clearly. (intransitive)

Who has broken the cup? (transitive)

Glass breaks easily. (intransitive)

Jane stood near the piano. (intransitive)

Jane stood the vase on the piano. (transitive)

The division of verbs into terminative and non-terminative depends on the aspectual characteristic in the lexical meaning of the verb which influences the use of aspect forms.

Terminative verbs (предельные глаголы) besides their specific meaning contain the idea that the action must be fulfilled and come to an end, reaching some point where it has logically to stop. These are such verbs as sit down, come, fall, stop, begin, open, close, shut, die, bring, find, etc.

Non-terminative, or durative verbs(непредельные глаголы) imply that actions or states expressed by these verbs may go on indefinitely without reaching any logically necessary final point. These are such verbs as carry, run, walk, sleep, stand, sit, live, know, suppose, talk, speak, etc.

The end, which is simply an interruption of these actions, may be shown only by means of some adverbial modifier:

He slept till nine in the morning.

The last subclass comprises verbs that can function as both termi­native and non-terminative (verbs of double aspectual meaning). The difference is clear from the context:

Can you see well? (non-terminative)

I see nothing there. (terminative)

The finite forms of the verb

§ 9. The category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker, showing whether the action is performed by the speaker (the 1st person), someone addressed by the speaker (the 2nd person) or someone/something other than the speaker or the person addressed (the 3rd person).

The category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-persons.

For the present indefinite tense* of the verb to be there are three contrasting forms: the 1st person singular, the 3rd person singular and the form for all persons plural: (I) am - (he) is - (we, you, they) are.

* The other term used for indefinite tenses is "simple tenses". Accordingly there are the simple present, "the simple past", "the simple future".

In the past indefinite tense it is only the verb to be that has one of these categories - the category of number, formed by the opposition of the singular and the plural forms: (I, he) was - (we, you, they) were. All the other verbs have the same form for all the persons, both singular and plural.

In the future and future in the past tenses there are two opposing forms: the 1st person singular and plural and the other persons: (I, we) shall go - (he, you, they) will go; (I, we) should come - (he, you, they) would come.

In colloquial style, however, no person distinctions are found either in the future or in the future in the past tenses. The only marker for the future tenses is ‘llused with all persons, both singular and plural: I'll do it; He'll do it; We'll do it, etc. The marker for the future in the past tenses is ‘d, also used with all persons and numbers: I said I’d come; He said he’d come; We said we’d come, etc. Historically ‘ll is the shortened form of will, ‘d is the shortened form of would.

The categories of person and number, with the same restrictions, as those mentioned above, are naturally found in all analytical forms contain­ing the present indefinite tense of the auxiliaries to be and to have, or the past indefinite tense of the auxiliary to be: (I) am reading - (he) is reading - (we, you, they) are reading; (I) amtold - (he) is told - (we, you, they) are told; (he) hascome - (I, we, you, they) havecome; (he) has been told - (I, we, you, they) havebeen told; (he) hasbeen reading - (I, we, you, they) havebeen reading.

A more regular way of expressing the categories of person and number is the use of personal pronouns. They are indispensable when the finite verb forms in the indicative as well as the subjunctive moods have no markers of person or number distinctions.

I stepped aside and they moved away.

They had been walking along, side by side, and she had been talking very earnestly.

If you were his own son, you could have all this.

If she were not a housemaid, she might not feel it so keenly.

The verb is always in the 3rd person singular if the subject of the predicate verb is expressed by a negative or indefinite pronoun, by an infinitive, a gerund or a clause:

Nothing has happened. Somebody has come.

To see him at last was a real pleasure. To shut that lid seems an easy task.

Seeing is believing. Visiting their house again seems out of the question.

What she has told me frightens me*.

* For further details see § on Agreement of the Subject and Predicate.

The category of tense

§ 10. The category of tense in English (as well as in Russian) expresses the relationship between the time of the action and the time of speaking.

The time of speaking is designated as present time and is the starting point for the whole scale of time measuring. The time that follows the time of speaking is designated as future time; the time that precedes the time of speaking is designated as past time. Accordingly there are three tenses in English - the present tense, the future tense and the past tense which refer actions to present, future or past time.

Besides these three tenses there is one more tense in English, the so-called future in the past. The peculiarity of this tense lies in the fact that the future is looked upon not from the point of view of the moment of speaking (the present) but from the point of view of some moment in the past.

Each tense is represented by four verb forms involving such categories as aspect and perfect. Thus there are four present tense forms: the present indefinite, the present continuous, the present perfect, the present perfect continuous; four past tense forms: the past indefinite, the past continuous, the past perfect and the past perfect continuous; four future tense forms: the future indefinite, the future continuous, the future perfect and the future perfect continuous; and four future in the past tense forms: the future in the past indefinite, the future in the past continuous, the future in the past perfect, the future in the past perfect continuous.