Degrees of Comparisons

Pазвитие профессионально-ориентированной коммуникативной компетенции на базе грамматики английского языка

Тверь

Составитель: доцент Астапенко Е.В.

Учебно-методическая разработка по развитию коммуникативной компетенции на базе грамматики английского языка для студентов 1-2 курсов юридического факультета.

Методическая разработка ставит своей целью развить такие компетенции, как умение свободно общаться на английском языке, правильно употребляя грамматические правила, структуры. Отработка и закрепление грамматики является неотъемлемой частью обучения студентов английскому языку и позволяет устранить проблемы грамматического плана и тем самым мотивировать студентов к общению на самые различные темы, в том числе и на профессиональные.

Печатается по решению кафедры иностранных языков гуманитарных факультетов (протокол № 8 от 16.06. 2010 г.)

C O N T E N T S

Articles………………………………………………………...4

Degrees of Comparisons………………………………………8

Present Simple – Present Progressive………………………..10

Past Simple – Past Progressive………………………………12

Future Simple – Future Progressive…………………………14

Present Perfect – Present Perfect Progressive……………….16

Future Perfect – Future Perfect Progressive…………………17

Past Perfect – Past Perfect Progressive………………………17

Future – in – the – Past ………………………………………21

Modal verbs…………………………………………………..22

Modal Verbs with Perfect Infinitive………………………….25

The Formation of Plurals……………………………………..31

Passive Voice…………………………………………………34

The Reported Speech………………………………………….37

The Infinitive and the Infinitive Constructions……………….40

Complex Object……………………………………………….41

Complex Subject………………………………………………42

Gerund…………………………………………………………43

Participle……………………………………………………….46

Absolute Participle Constructions……………………………..46

Subjunctive Mood……………………………………………...49

A R T I C L E S

A (an) is used with singular countable nouns to talk about indefinite things.

E.g. There’s aman waiting for you at the door.

Somecan be used in the affirmative with plural countable nouns and any in questions and negations.

E.g. There are some olives in the jar. There’s some beer in the fridge. Is there any money left in the bank account? There aren’t any biscuits in the cupboard.

Theis used with singular and plural nouns, countable and uncountable ones, to talk about something specific or when the noun is mentioned for a second time.

E.g. The green building is my school. There’s a car parked in the middle of the road. The car is Paul’s.

A (an) or the is used before singular countable nouns to refer to a group of people, animals or things.

E.g. A/ The canary is the most popular singing-bird.

A (an) or the is never used before a noun in the plural when it represents a group.

E.g. Canaries are the most popular singing birds.

T h e is used before:

1. nouns which are unique – the moon, the Tower of London.

2. name of cinemas – (The Odeon), hotels (The Hilton), theatres (The Theatre Royal), museums (The Museum of Modern Art), newspapers / magazines (The European), (B U T Time), ships (The QE2), institutions(The Royal Academy of Art), galleries (The National Gallery).

3. names of rivers – (The Thames), seas(The North Sea), mountain ranges(The Alps), deserts(The Sahara Desert), oceans (The Atlantic), canals (The Suez Canal) and names or nouns with «of» (The Chamber of Horrors, the Vale of Death).

N O T E: the equator, the Arctic (Antarctic, the South of France, the South/West/North/East.

4. musical instruments, dances –the flute, the samba.

5. names of families (the Browns), nationalities ending in -sh, -ch, -ese (the Welsh, the Dutch, the Chinese, etc). Other plural nationalities are used with or without «the» (the South Africans, the Americans, etc).

6. titles – (the President, the Prince of Wales, the Queen). «The» is omitted before titles with proper names (Queen Elizabeth II.)

7. adjectives used as plural nouns – (the blind, the elderly, the rich, the poor, etc.) and the superlative degree of adjectives/ adverbs. He’s the most intelligent one here.

8. N O T E: «most» used as a determiner followed by a noun, does not take «the». Most students failed the exams. B U T: The most interesting lecture was the one on endangered species.

9. The words: beach, cinema, city, coast, country(side), earth, ground, jungle, radio, pub, sea(side), sky, station, shop, theatre, village, weather, world, etc B U T NOT before «man» (= people), e.g. I went to the shop to buy bread. Note: «the» is optional with seasons.

10. morning, afternoon, evening, night. – I’ll come round in the morning.

(B U T: at night, at noon, at midnight, by day/night, at 5 o’clock etc).

11. historical reference/ events –the French Revolution, the Second World War (B U T: World War II).

12. only, last, first (used as adjectives). – Alex is the first to come and the last to leave.

The is omitted before:

1. proper nouns – James, Swansea

2. names of sports, games, activities, days, months, holidays, colours, drinks, meals and languages (not followed by the word “language”),e.g. I lovepolo. Can you speak Spanish? B U T: TheChinese language is fascinating.

3. names of countries – (France), b u t: the Netherlands, (the) Sudan, the Hague, the Vatican, cities –(Manchester), streets –(Bond Street), b u t: the High Street, The Strand, the Mall, the A11, the M4 motorway, squares – (George Square), bridges – (Tower Bridge, b u t: the Bridge of Sighs, the Forth Bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge), parks – (Central Park), stations – (King’s Cross Station), individual mountains – (Mount Everest), islands –(Malta), lakes – (Lake Ontario), continents –(Asia).

4. possessive adjectives – That is my car.

5. two-word names whose first word is the name of a person or a place. –Glasgow Airport, Edinburgh Castle, b u t: The White House (because the first word is not the name of a person or a place).

6. pubs, restaurants, shops, banks and hotels which have the name of their founder and end in -s or -s’s – Tom’s Café, Harrods, Baring’s Bank, b u t: the White Horse (pub) (because “White Horse” is not the name of the founder).

7. bed, church, college, court, hospital, prison, school, university when we refer to the purpose for which they exist –He goes to church every Sunday, but:We have to be at the church at 2.00 for Julie’s wedding. Work (= place of work) never takes “the”. E.g. I have to go to work now.

8. the words home, father/ mother when we talk about our own home/ parents, e.g. Mum is home now.

9. means of transport: by bus/ by car/ by train/ by plane, etc. B U T: in the car, on the bus/ train, etc. E.g. She came by bus. B U T: She was on the bus when the accident happened.

10. We say: flu/ the flu, measles/ the measles, mumps/ the mumps, b u t: He has got pneumonia.

Запомните устойчивые сочетания с артиклями и без них.

At half past five, at a quarter past five, to go home, to come home, to leave home for work (for school), to watch TV, what colour…?, what book…?, out of doors, in a loud voice, in a low voice, in an angry voice…., in the south, in the west…, to the south, to the west…, to have a good time, from morning till night, all day long, a lot of, to study at St. Petersburg University, what’s the use?, to graduate from Oxford University, on horseback, on board a ship, in fact, the same, What a good boy!, What a long story! What a day!, it’s high time, to take aim, to take care of, such a…, the fact is (was) that…, at sunrise, at sunset, in the country, in town, to town, in spring, in autumn…, after a while, from place to place, it was morning, it was daytime…, to go on strike, to be on strike, the rest of the…, in a day, in a week, in a year…, for life, a great deal.

№ 1. Вместо точек вставьте, где требуется, артикли a, an или местоимения some и any:

1. I usually smoke … cigarettes or … pipe. My father smokes…cigars. 2. Give me … match, please. 3. Are there … matches in that box? 4. Is there …bookshop in this street? I want to buy … books. 5. …watchmaker repairs…watches and clocks. 6. There is … sofa and … armchairs in this room.7. Did you buy … boots or … shoes? 8. Andrew is … accountant. He is…chief of the bookkeeping department of … large organization. 9. Mr. Ivanov is … architect; his two brothers are … engineers. 10. There are … books and … magazines on the table. 11. Which would you like: …apple or …orange? 12. Which would you like: apples or … oranges? 13. Will you please give me … pen and … sheets of paper? 14. Is there … letter for me? 15. Are there … letters for me? 16. What … strange man! 17. What … interesting books!

№ 2. Вставьте артикли, где это необходимо.

1. …Londoners are fond of … beautiful parks of their city. At …weekends hundreds of…people come to… parks.

2. Most of … London streets are narrow. … Oxford Street is… busiest street: there are … lots of … department stores, shops and offices there.

3. …Stratford is … old town in … central part of … England. It has mostly … narrow streets and two-storey buildings. …Stratford is famous for its … festivals of … theatre. … festivals take place every year.

4. If you walk along the Strand, you can reach … Houses of Parliament. … new building for … Houses of Parliament was built in 1840. When Parliament sits … flag flies from … Victoria Tower by day and … light in … Clock Tower above … famous Big Ben burns by night.

№ 3. Вставьте по смыслу much или many:

1. …people want to see this play. 2. I don’t drink … wine. 3. How … sheets of paper do you want? 4. Hurry up! You haven’t got … time. 5. How … does it cost? 6. Did you pay … money for your watch? 7. We haven’t had … rain this summer. 8. How … time does it take to go there? 9. How … times have you been there? 10. How … butter did you buy? 11. How … apples did you buy? 12. He doesn’t eat … fruit.

№ 4. Употребите правильно артикли a, an, the или нулевой артикль.

1. I’d like to have… hamburger for… breakfast. 2. Pushkin is …. outstanding Russian poet. 3. Can you play …piano? 4. Will you play … chess with me? 5. At… night I had … terrible headache after I had drunk … lot of …coffee in … evening. 6. There is … bend in … road. 7. Thomas Banks is … last person I want to see. 8. My favourite subject at school is …History. 9. He knows … history of … French Revolution well. 10. Tom’s going to take … his fishing-rod. 11. Could you phone later, please? Jane’s having … shower. 12. The rent is 50 dollars …week. 13. We often go to … theatre and to … cinema. 14. Yesterday Dad came home at 8 o’clock, we had … dinner and then watched … TV. We went to … bed at 11 p.m. 15. What … pity they haven’t come! 16. I can’t find … letter which I received this morning. 17. By … way, have you heard anything from Tim lately? – … last year he entered … Oxford University. 18. …President is going to open … new hospital in … capital … next month. 19. Are you going to … country on … Saturday? 20. They usually go … shopping on … Mondays, but last Monday they didn’t do … shopping. 21. Dad came to … school to see my teacher yesterday. 22. “Do this exercise at… school and then that one at … home.” Said our teacher in … loud voice. 23. Could you tell me… time, please? – It’s … quarter past four. 24. We are busy today, but we have … little time to spare tomorrow. 25. The sweater was cheap. It cost only … few pounds. 26. To tell … truth, I didn’t expect to see him. 27. It’s … high time you stopped being so lazy. 28. …earth goes round .. sun. 29. …life is hard in that climate. 30. What … lovely song! 31. It took me one and … half hours to get there. 32. … half … dozen eggs, please.

№ 5. В тексте артикль «the» употреблен неправильно десять раз. Подчеркните случаи, где он лишний.

The word processor and the calculator are without a shadow of doubt here to stay, and in the many respects our lives are the much richer for them. But the teachers and other academics are claiming that we are now starting to feel the first significant wave of their effects on a generation of the users. It seems nobody under the age of 20 can spell or add up any more. Even several professors at leading universities have commented on the detrimental effect the digital revolution has had on the most intelligent young minds in the country. The problem, evidently, lies with the automatic spell-check now widely available on the word processing software. Professor John Silver of the Sydney University, Australia, said: “Why should we bother to learn how to spell correctly, or for that matter to learn even the most basic of the mathematical sums, when at the press of a button we have our problem answered for us. The implications are enormous. Will the adults of the future look to the computer to make the decisions for them, to tell them who to marry or what the house to buy? Are we heading for a future individual incapable of the independent human thought?”

Degrees of Comparisons

(Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий)

Положительная степень	Сравнительная степень	Превосходная степень
Односложные и двусложные	оканчивающиеся на -y, -er,	-ow, -le
Large	larger	(the) largest
thin	thinner	thinnest
near	nearer	nearest
late	later	latest
early	earlier	earliest
Некоторые двусложные	Много-	сложные
difficult	more difficult	(the) most difficult
slowly	more slowly	most slowly
easily	more easily	most easily
Особые	случаи
good well	better better	(the) best (the) best
bad badly	worse	worst
much many	more	most
little	less	least
far	farther	farthest

Types of Comparisons

1. as… (positive)… as

Not so/as… (positive)… as

•Paul is as heavy as Tom.

•Jane isnot as / so tall asMary.

2. less… (positive)… than

the least …(positive)… of/in

•Betty is less hard-working than Kate.

• but Jean is the least hard-working ofall.

3. the + comparative…, the + comparative

• The harderyou work, the moremoney you earn.

№ 6. Образуйте сравнительную и превосходную степени от следующих прилагательных и наречий.

a) happy, short, thick, long, young, nice, small, hot, easy, cold, late;

b) beautiful, happily, dangerous, wonderful, interesting, popular;

c) good, many, bad, little, much, well, badly.

№ 7. Поставьте прилагательные и наречия в превосходную степень.

1. This is the (good) student in our group. 2. This is the (interesting) story by this writer. 3. I think this exercise is the (difficult). 4. The (near) cinema is “Vityaz”. 5. Who is the (tall) in your group? 6. This text is the (short) in the book. 7. Today is the (bad) day in my life. 8. My friend is the (happy) man in the world. 9. I am the (young) in the family. 10. Do you know the (late) news?

№ 8. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Я написал более длинное письмо, чем вы. 2. В прошлый раз футбольный матч был более интересным. 3. Диккенс – один из самых популярных писателей. 4. Это самая трудная работа. 5. Я знаю этого человека хуже, чем ты. 6. У меня больше друзей, чем у него. 7. Это самое легкое упражнение. 8. Он говорит по-английски лучше, чем я. 9. Мой отец старше моей матери. 10. Февраль – самый короткий месяц года.

№ 9. Переведите следующие предложения на английский язык.

1) Он не такой усталый, как она. 2) Упражнение 2 такое же трудное, как и упражнение 5. 3) Она думает, что бокс такой же опасный вид спорта, как и борьба. 4) Этот дом такой же высокий, как тот. 5) Сегодня вода в реке не такая теплая, как вчера. 6) Ты не такой умный, как папа. 7) Индия не такая большая, как Китай. 8) Темза такая же красивая, как Нева. 9) Его бабушка не такая старая, как дедушка. 10) Яблоки такие же вкусные, как сливы, но не такие вкусные, как груши. 11) Русский музей такой же богатый, как Эрмитаж? 12) Державин не такой знаменитый, как Пушкин. 13) Днепр не такой длинный, как Волга. 14) В прошлом году август был такой же жаркий, как июль. 15) Он не такой старый, как я. 16) Она такая же щедрая, как ее бабушка. 17) Его машина такая же удобная (комфортабельная), как твоя. 18) Экзамен был не таким трудным, как мы ожидали. 19) Он такой же сильный, как его брат. 20) Этот компьютер не такой дорогой, как я ожидал. 21) Эта работа такая же интересная, как и твоя.

PRESENT SIMPLE – PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

Formula	☺+V1 or V1+s(es) if 3d person Singular	☺+Am, is, are + V1+ ing
General question	Do (Does) +☺+ V1…?	Is, are +☺+ V1+ing…?
Who question	Who + V1+ s(es)…?	Who+ is+ V1+ing…?
Special questions	Wh… + Do(Does)+☺+ V1..?	Wh..+ is ( are) +☺+ V1+ing..?
Time expressions	Every day/week/month/year, usually, sometimes, always, rarely, never, often, on Monday, in the morning, evening, etc	Now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today, this month, this week, tonight, always, still, etc
USAGE	1) permanent situations or states (Jim livesin the South of England.) 2) permanent truths or laws of nature (The sun setsaround 5 o’clock in the afternoon in the winter.) 3) repeated/habitual actions especially with always, usually… (George always playsfootball on Saturday afternoons.) 4) timetables / program-mes with a future meaning (The plane for Glasgo leaves at 10:05 on Tuesday morning.) 5) reviews / sports-commentaries / dramatic narrative (The basketball player shoots and the ball goesin the basket!)	1) temporary situations (I am paying off my car loan this month.) 2) frequently repeated actions with always, constantly expressing annoyance or criticism (He is always leaving his dirty clothes ob the floor!) 3) actions happening at or around the moment of speaking (I’m making coffee, would you like some?) 4) Fixed arrangements in the near future (I am meeting Diana for dinner on Friday night. (It is arranged that we meet on Friday night.) 5) be going to is used a) to talk about things we are sure about or we have already decided to do in the near future (I’m going to buy a new car (I’ve decided it.) b) to express intention and plans (Now that I’ve got the money, I’m going to buy a new dress. – intention. I’m going to get some more training so I can get a better job. – plan). c) when we can see (evidence) that something is going to happen.(Watch out! We’re going to have an accident. – we can see a car coming. It’s going to rain. – we can see dark clouds in the sky.)

Stative verbs express a permanent state rather than an action and do not have continuous forms. These are: verbs of senses (appear, hear, see, look (= seem), seem, smell, sound, taste); verbs of feeling and emotions (adore, detest, dislike, forgive, hate, like, love, prefer, etc); verbs of opinion(agree, believe, suppose, understand, etc.)

Some Stative verbs can have continuous forms but there is a difference in meaning: I think you are wrong. (= I believe). What are you thinking about? (= are you considering?). I see what you mean. (= I understand). I’m seeing Jenny tonight. (= I’m meeting). They have a cottage in Brighton. (= they own). They are having a nice time at the party. (= they are experiencing). He looks very tired. (= he appears). He is looking at the photos. (= he’s viewing).

№ 10 . Поставьте глаголы, стоящие в скобках, в зависимости от смысла в Present Simple или Present Continuous.

1. What you (to do) here? – I (to wait) for a friend. 2. He (to speak) French? – Yes, he (to speak) French quite fluently. 3. Listen! Someone (to knock) at the door. 4. Don’t go into the classroom! The students (to write) a dictation there.5. She (to write) letters to her mother every week. 6. Ships (to travel) from Odessa to Batumi in three and a half days. 7. The man who (to smoke) a cigarette is our English teacher. 8. Let’s go for a walk, it not (to rain). 9. You (to hear) anything? – I (to listen) hard, but I not (to hear) anything. 10. My brother (to smoke) a great deal. 11. Listen! The telephone (to ring). 12. Where is Peter? He (to have) his English lesson. I think that he always (to have) it at this hour.

PAST SIMPLE — PAST PROGRESSIVE

Formula	☺+ V1+ed or (V2)	☺+ was (were) +V1+ing
General question	Did + ☺+ V1…?	Was (were)+☺+V1+ing…?
Who question	Who +V2…?	Who +was+V1+ing…?
Special questions	Wh..+did+☺+V1…?	Wh..+was(were)+☺+V1+ing…?
Time expressions	yesterday, last week (month), (how long) ago, then, just now, when, in 1991, etc., used to, would	while, when, as, the moment that, the whole evening, etc
Usage	1)past actions happened one immediately after the other (She stood up, wentup to her and grabbed her wrists.) 2) completed actions or events which happened at a stated past time (I went to the cinema last night. When? Last night.) 3) past habits or states (My grandmother always wore a hat. My grandmother always used to wear a hat.) 4) complete actions not connected to the present with a stated or implied reference (Beethoven created wonderful classical pieces – we know when he lived.) 5) used to (+ infinitive)expresses past habits or states. It forms its negative and interrogative with did and is the same in all persons (Stacey used to live in Brighton. Did you use to suck your thumb when you were a baby?) 6) would + infinitiveexpresses past repeated actions and routines (Every day Peter would wake up early, take a shower and set out for work.)	1)actions in the middle of happening at a stated past time (She was flying to Paris this time last Monday.)   2) a past action in progress interrupted by another past action. The longer action is in the Past Progressive, the shorter action is in the Past Simple (I was watching television when my mother camehome.) 3) two or more simultaneous past actions of certain duration (I was reading while my brother was listening to music.) 4) background description to events in a strong description (As he was walking through the woods, the birds were singing and the sun was shining brightly.)