Different kinds of land transport

What was the reaction of the people after the invention of the steam engine?

1. In Washington the story is told of a director of the Pat­ent Office who in the early thirties of the last century sug­gested that the Office be closed because "everything that could possibly be invented had been invented". People ex­perienced a similar feeling after the invention of the steam engine.

But there was a great need for a more efficient engine than the steam engine, for one without a huge boiler, an engine that could quickly be started and stopped. This problem was solved by the invention of the internal combustion engine.

Who introduced the first cheap motor car?

2.The first practical internal combustion engine was introduced in the form of a gas engine by the German engineer N. Otto in 1876.

Since then motor transport began to spread in Europe very Rapidly. But the person who was the first to make it realty popular was Henry Ford, an American manufacturer who Introduced the first cheap motor car, the famous Ford Model "T".

When did diesel-engined lorries become general?

3. The rapid development of the internal combustion en-Mine led to its use in the farm tractors, thereby creating a revolution in agriculture. The use of motor vehicles for car-trying heavy loads developed more slowly until the 1930s When diesel-engined lorries became general.

The motor cycle steadily increased in popularity as en­gines and tyres became more reliable and roads improved. Mo-Ног cycles were found well suited for competition races and sporting events and were also recognized as the cheapest form of fast transport.

When were the trams introduced first?

4. Buses were started in Paris in 1820. In 1828 they were introduced in London by George Shillibeer, a coach builder who used the French name "Omnibus" which was obtained from the Latin word meaning "for all”.His omnibuses were driven by three horses and had seats for 22 passengers. Then in the 20th century reliable petrol engines became available, and by 1912 the new motor buses were fast replacing horse-driven buses.

Trams were introduced in the middle of the !9th century. The idea was that, as the rails were smoother than the roads, less effort was needed to pull a tram than a bus. The first trams were horse drawn but the later trams were almost all driven by electricity. The electric motor driving the tram was usually with electric current from overhead wires. Such wires are also used by trolley-buses, which run on rubber tyres and do not need rails.

Another form of transport used in London, Paris, Ber­lin, Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev and some other crowded cities is the underground railway.

London's first underground railway of the "tube" type was opened in 1863. The Moscow underground which is consid­ered to be the best and most comfortable underground in the world, was opened in !935.

TEXT 3. Read and translate the text with the help of a dictionary:

ROAD SAFETY

1. According to police records at least one person is billed daily on Delhi roads in India. Every year several thous­and people are killed on the roads in Great Britain. Every year between one and two hundred thousand people are injured. These people arе killed or injured in road acci­dents.

2. If you are in England and if you listen to the 8 o'clock news from the radio, you will often hear news of road ac­cidents. You may hear something like this.

."On Monday evening, at about twenty minutes to ten a cyclist was knocked down by a car in High Street. The cy­clist has since died from his injuries. Will anyone who saw the accident please telephone.New Scotland Yard."

3. Great attention is being paid to the problem of road safety in all countries. Accidents often happen if people don't obey the rules that help to make the road safe. If everybody obeys the rules, the roads will be much safer. How can we make the roads safer? Here are some examples of accidents happened.

4 The young woman was out shopping. She had a shop­ ping basket on her left arm. She was ready to go home. She saw her bus stopping on the other side of the street. She forgot the safety rules. She was in a hurry, so she ran out into the street. She wanted to get across quickly and catch her bus. At that moment the car hit her and knocked her down. The woman was taken to hospital. The doctors did everything that was possible, but she died three hours later. It was the woman's fault. She did not obey the traffic rules.

5. The next story is about the boy who was riding a bicycle. Today he has only one leg and he wilt never ride a bicycle again. This accident took place in a busy shopping centre. The boy was riding a bicycle carrying a heavy box under his right arm. It was wrong thing to do. The boy had only one hand to control his bicycle. The boy was not killed, he was taken to hospital and the doctors had- to cut his right leg off. It was the boy's fault. It was not the fault of the driver of the car.

6. In Great Britain traffic keeps to the left: cars, motor-vans, buses and cyclists must all keep to the left side of the road. In the USSR as well as in most countries traffic keeps to the right.

7. Before crossing the road, stop and look both ways. Then if you consider that the road is clear, that there is nothing coming it is safe to cross the road. If you see that small children or very old people are waiting to cross the road, you are to help them to cross the road in safety. We must teach children to cross the road safely. We must always give them a good example. Small children must not play in the streets.

8. There are many things that drivers can do to make the road safe, But unfortunately they do not always obey the traffic rules. For example, in Delhi it is quite normal for a driver at night to see a car going along the wrong side of a divided road straight at him. The taxi-drivers often horrify people passing at full speed turning into another road seconds before an oncoming bus. Most cyclists in Delhi do not obey the traffic rules. Very often they pass the red traffic lights as if they did not see them at all.

9. The drivers must obey traffic rules. They must be careful at crossroads. They must drive slowly when turning into another road. A driver must not drive if he is tired or ill. A man who drives after drinking beer or wine is usually a dangerous driver. His own and the life of others may be in danger. So if you are a driver or going to become one, do not forget about all these things.

TEXT 4. Read and translate the text with the help of a dictionary:

TUNNELS AND BRIDGES

1. The construction of tunnels presents the civil engineer with some of his most difficult problems.

Few people realize the immense courage and experience needed to pierce the barriers of mountains with long railway tunnels. Indeed, their construction has demanded every re­source of mind, body and spirit. The story of these great works is a saga of human spirit triumphing over the forces of nature.

The tunnel construction dates back to 1857, when French and Italian engineers combined to undertake the gigantic task of building the Mont Ceris tunnel. It carries the main railway lines from south-eastern France to north-western Italy. The tunnel is nearly 8 miles long and is of great techni-ca! interest, because air compressors and rock drills operated by compressed air were first used on this work. It was also probably the first large project on which dynamite was em­ployed for breaking the rock. But when it was started, driving was done by hand. Black gunpowder was used for breaking the rock. At first progress was very slow, and if it had continued at the initial rate, it would have taken 75 years to complete it. In fact for the first 4 years the tunnel advanced only 9 in. a day on each side. With the introduction of compressed air drills and dynamite, progress went ahead and was accelerated to 6 ft day.

Traffic Tunnel

2. Whenever the proposed path of a road or railway is obstructed by a hill, a waterway, or some form of construction, the engineer designing the project has to decide whether to construct a tunnel through or under the obstacle. In making his decision, he has not only to consider the economic aspect, but must also weigh up all the constructional advan­tages and disadvantages of both tunnelling and the alternative method of either passing around or over the obstacle, in prac­tice it is often found that tunnelling, although costly, proves to be less expensive than any alternative system.

3 The inability of the existing road system of many large towns to cope with modern traffic requirements has made tunnel construction a possibility worth serious consideration. To some extent flyovers and underpasses, being the first steps to speed up and divert traffic, have eased the situation, but a considerable contribution towards a satisfactory solu­tion can be made by underground railway networks. Many of larger cities of the world have been successfully served by underground railways for years, and most of them are still extending their networks, while other cities have in­troduced them for the first time to reduce excessive traffic congestion.

Bridge or Tunnel?

4. Should a motorway pass under or over a large water­ way? For a narrow waterway there is no problem, the water is always bridged. Until 1960 only two alternatives existed,

bridging over or tunnelling under the waterway, but now a third choice is available, the immersed tube is made of pipes of great length lowered into a trench in the bed of the river and joined under water.

The main considerations in the decision are now generally traffic capacity, gradient, obstruction of shipping, costs of construction and maintenance, speed of completion, possible later widening and so on.

The choice often falls on a bridge because it can carry more vehicles per hour and its capacity is more easily extend­ed by widening or by adding a deck.

5. In the eightieth of the last century, also for military reasons, the British Government would not allow further work on the tunnel under the English Channel to France al­though the preliminary work was by then so advanced that lengths of 1 km of pilot tunnel of some 2 m diameter had al­ready been driven from each shore. These lengths were still in perfect condition when inspected eighty years later, be­cause they had been driven through a chalk rock which is ideal for tunnelling, being fairly watertight and just strong enough.

The ever increasing motor traffic needs an ever growing number of highways, which will have to cross important wat­erways, with also increasing shipping. In several cases tun­nels will not only be the cheapest solution, but also the best with regard to weather conditions (no ice or snow, no wind or rain), maintenance, danger of collision with a ship, aesthetic reasons, etc.

Bridge/tunnel combinations form attractive and often obvious solution for crossings of great length.

It is easy to predict that in the next decades an ever in­creasing number of important and interesting tunnels — submerged or bored— will be built, and that the existing methods of building, sinking, etc. will be improved and perfected and new and astonishing techniques will be developed,

PART 2

UNIT 1

TOPICS FOR THE EXAM

1. There are different types of engines. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of every type.

2. Our city is a great cultural centre. There are a lot of places of interest. Prove that Murmansk is really worth visiting.

3. You can see various indicators and gauges on a car panel. Describe the instrument panel of a car.

4. We live in the Arctic zone and the weather is not favourable very often. Speak about the climate in Murmansk region.

5. Sometimes a car may be broken and may cause a lot of problems. Describe the most common faults in a car and the ways to repair them.

6. Shopping is not a simple thing, sometimes it is a kind of art. Prove the fact that there are a lot of places to shop nowadays.

7. Everything changes in the world and the cars are changing drastically with the development of new technology. Explain what elements of the vehicle have changed little and what ones are being improved.

8. Many people, children and adults, are interested in collecting, learning and making things. Explain why people have hobbies. Speak about your favourite pastime.

9. Looking at a modern car it seems so simple to drive it. Prove that a motor vehicle is a complex engineering construction.

10. Family life always consists of various joys and sorrows but you can find here help and support. Describe the family you live in. Speak about the traditions in your family.

11. Science and technology develop quickly. So do the cars. Speak about the vehicle of the future. What will be changed in its design?

12. Many tourists go to London every year. This wonderful city has a lot of places of interest. What sights of London are worth visiting? Why?

13. A modern car is a complex means of transport. What car mechanisms do you know? Speak about their functions.

14. Englishmen often say that they have no climate but only the weather. Why? Prove the fact that climate of Great Britain and that one of our region have much in common.

15. Nowadays a car has become a common thing and you can see various models of them in the streets. Speak about the early days of automobiles.

UNIT 2

TEXT 1. Read and translate the text with the help of a dictionary:

ROADS

1.Transportation is a system consisting essentially of three components: 1) driver, 2) vehicle, 3) road. Whenever any one of these three components of the system fails, the whole system would fail, and conditions of hazards would be created on the road. If therefore it is desired to provide safe and efficient transportation systems it is necessary that all these three components should function efficiently in a well coordinated manner.

2.Driver. Of all the above-mentioned components driver is the most powerful component influencing safety on a road. Studies have shown that 86% of the serious accidents are caused by drivers.

3.Vehicle. This component also plays a vital part in determining safety on roads. Just like an unsafe driver, an unsafe vehicle is a source of constant danger in a road transportation system. With the growing percentage of old ve­hicles the risk of accidents on roads has also been growing considerably. This risk could be minimized by eliminating unsafe vehicles from roads. One way of doing it is to carry out periodical inspection of old vehicles.

4.Road. To ensure maximum safety for the transportation system, it is very necessary to plan and design highways on sound engineering techniques. It is possible to obtain maximum safety on highways by controlling their geometry, by alignment of vertical and horizontal curves and providing adequate sight distances for the speeds which it is desirable to obtain on these highways. The traffic on the road has completely altered within the last twenty-five years and therefore the existing system, of roads in many countries should also be changed, in order to meet modern requirements. The modern trend is undoubtedly towards national and consequently uniform planning, design and construction.

5.The efficiency of a country's road network has a pro­found effect on its prosperity. The ability of roads to enable traffic to flow freely and safely between the industrial and commercial centres contributes enormously towards a pro­gressive economy. Motorways, besides serving each individ­ual country, fulfill the desirable function of linking coun­tries more closely together. Through the medium of travel, they help to promote cordial relations among the peoples of the various nations. In fact, the importance of good roads, both nationally and internationally, cannot be overstressed.

6.In order to serve their purpose in the best possible man­ner, modern roads should, as far as possible, possess the following principal features:

a) They should be designed according to the anticipated volume and speed of the traffic likely to use them.

b) Bends and gradients, where necessary, should always slight.

c) Visibility should not be hindered.

d) They should be well and clearly signposted.

e) Adequate provision should be made for both cyclists and pedestrians with regard to their safety.

f) They should be well lit, where necessary.

g) Hedge and tree planting on the sides and central res­ervations should be arranged to provide a pleasant and inter­esting outlook for the road user, to avoid monotony and boredom.

7. In modern road construction, there is a much greater recognition of the importance of the subsoil beneath a road than years ago. И is regarded nowadays as an integral part of the road, and no longer as merely the formation on which to build a road. As a result of this various methods have been devised in recent years to improve its quality and con­sequently its stability. Stabilization can be achieved in a number of ways, the most simple being mechanical.

In case of mechanical stabilization granular or cohesive Materials are added to the subsoil. In particularly dry climates it is often found necessary to add substances helping tо retain sufficient moisture. Alternatively, stabilization can be effectively carried out by adding substances that harden the soil, and greatly increase its compressive strength.

The constantly increasing volume of modern traffic especially in the towns, indicate that there is an urgent need for countless road construction projects in the near future. This involves the construction of numerous auxiliary struc­tures

TEXT 2.Read and translate the text with the help of a dictionary: