Принцип использования родного языка
This principle has been causing lots of debates for years. Some people insist on the student’s translating everything they read. Other educators believe that the mother tongue is a natural enemy and it should be driven away from a foreign language class. The use of the mother tongue has been compared with a crutch, with a wall between a learner and a foreign language. We believe that the mother tongue has lots of uses and can come in handy from the first grade to the last. But Russian should be spoken on the class as little as possible. Sometimes the use of the mother tongue can encourage the shape of thoughts directly in English.
Functions
1. Russian can be the language of classroom management. But this function is the crutch. And the sooner you get rid of it, the better.
2. The native tongue can be a means of explaining grammar. At the advanced stages grammar can be explained in English but Russian may still be necessary for comparison.
Перепишите предложения с английским порядком слов. – Я вчера поздно домой пришел.
3. Russian can be a means of presenting new vocabulary. But we only resort to Russian when nothing else works.
4. Russian is a means of checking understanding (of grammar, vocabulary and even intonation)
I didn’t take this job in order to be able to travel.
(1) Я не для того здесь устроился, чтобы иметь возможность путешествовать
(2) Я не стал там работать, потому что хотел иметь возможность путешествовать.
5. The native tongue can help to prevent mistakes if this or that mistake can be caused by the interlanguage interference.
В Где? (in)
Когда? (into)
6. The native tongue can help to practice foreign language skills
· Ответьте на вопрос одним английским словом. Важно сообразить, в каком числе и с каким артиклем его использовать.
Кто бегает быстрее? Собаки или кошки? (cats or dogs)
· Read the question in Russian and answer them in English. For example “Зачем человек держит домашних животных?” – “He uses them. He likes them. He needs them. They need him”
7. The Russian language can suggest alternatives of developing an utterance.
Частичный перевод + смысловой выбор + добавление
I want a …I’d like to have… It would be nice to have… I’d appreciate… «квартиру побольше, потеплее, поближе к университету, стипендию побольше, специальность попрестижнее»
8. Russian can help to avoid translation and can turn an absolutely formed drill into a semblance of communication.
Назовите по-английски номер правильного перевода
It isn’t a big cake. (это не черная ручка, это на большой шкаф, это не большой пирог)
9. The use of Russian can create meaningful contexts for using vocabulary and structures when they’re still very limited.
Where is (are) my (yours, his, the) –
Я-то собирался сварить из них компот
Where are the apples?
10. The Russian language may even help schoolchildren to use derivatives they have not come across yet.
They are acquainted with – er
Психологический тест. Дайте себе объективную оценку.
I am good/bad….-er. Ответьте одним предложением на каждую серию вопросов.
«Когда вы в компании друзей вы предпочитаете говорить или слушать? Часто ли вы перебиваете других? Любят ли друзья рассказовать вам секреты?»
I’m a good/bad listener.
The structure of the skill-formation process
1. The stages of skill-formation (этапы формирования)
2. A link (звено) as a smallest unit of the skill-formation process.
3. Classification of tasks and exercises
Practically any skill whenever a basic one or a functional one passes through the following three stages of formation:
· Presentation (ознакомление)
· Practices (тренировка)
· Performance (речевая практика).
Of course there are some skills which do not require presentation as a separate stage. For instance, some sounds are so similar to Russian ones that at an ordinary school we can consider them identical and we do not explain how to articulate them. They can be imitated. [m, g, b]
There are some structures that we don’t have to explain (He wants to buy it).
During the first stage (presentation) the main activity is cognitive. The tasks students do need not be communicative. They are very fragmentary. At this stage are shape new concepts: from very simple ones (voice, voiceless consonants) to very complicated notions (the notion of unreal condition)
We teach the learners to perform elementary operations which are not yet done automatically and which will became real operations later.
Presentation is a foundation for the further practice.
During the stage of practice the main activity is automatization. It’s here that we develop fluency so that the learner is able either to understand an utterance or to produce an utterance unmistakably, quickly enough and without any hesitation pauses. And every utterance should be produced with a perfect rhythm.
Language skills – functional skills, from how to say to what to say, from form to meaning.
Performance. (what to say) Here the main focus is communication. But there is no hard and fast line between the stages. Thus during automatization we may arrive at same subtler shades of meaning. And on the other hand practice should be communicative.
During the stage of performance the process of automatization continues but it becomes practically unguided. That is you may suggest that the learners should use some material but you’re not supposed to impose it on the learners. But these 3 stages which are universally recognized are not sufficient to describe gradual progression from one level of difficulty to another.
As a result we sometimes come across text books where all the 3 stages are observed but are hopelessly disconnected. In such textbooks grammar or vocabulary practice is usually restricted to formal tasks like “open the brackets”, or “ask the question to the adverb modifier”. And then the students face truly communicative tasks like “speak about…”. There is a terrible gap between practice and performance, because no matter how many exercises we do in filling in the brackets and so on, they do not help us to communicate.
Therefore we need a smaller unit than a stage to show gradual transition from formal drills to authentic communication so as to observe the snowball ideology.
During the presentation stage we can single out at least two links. Within the next stage – 3,4,5 links.
Link 1
The students study efforts are minimized, i.e. subdivided into minimal steps. Usually the teacher gives some explanation which is also subdivided into minimal portions, doses, units. And every bit of information is accompanied by some activity on the part of the learner. Every study effort (учебное действие) has its own aim. So it is quite concrete.
1. Подчеркните правильный вариант: “She is very unhappy: she (lost, has lost) her bag”.
2. Вставьте нужный союз, соответствующий русскому «через»: across, through over; e.g. their house was very near – just … the road.
Link 2
The tasks need not be communicative. They are performed without hurry. Very often they require a good discussion. The teacher does not insist on the perfect rhythm, tone, the integrity of sentence production. The difference between two links: in order to perform a link-2-task a learner has to overcome more than one difficulty, so that the goal of the exercise is attained. Each of them is still a conscious study effort, but it is deprived of its own purpose. It leads to the attainment of the common aim. The learners are still unable to combine 2 or more study efforts and do them simultaneously. The attention shifts from one study effort to the next one until we arrive at a final result.
1. Скажите, с какими существительными можно употребить неопределенный артикль: «тетрадь, ручка, книги, мел, доска, Европа, стулья, страна, горы»
2. Раскройте скобки, употребив нужную форму глагола: «Why didn’t you answer the phone at once? – I (put) the baby to bed». «Did you see the beginning of the film? – No, when I came home, the film (begin)»
Link 3.
Link 3 belongs to practice. It is very similar to the first two links because no communication is yet required. It may focus on one central linguistic challenge like link 1, or it might be like link 2, where several challenges can be overcome, but the difference is that a link-3-task requires a perfectly connected and smooth utterance. Rhythm is a must and therefore there must be no hesitation causes. Such tasks do usually not exceed the sentence level.
1. Reproduce an expanding sentence
2. Correct the teacher; reconstruct the word the teacher substituted “by mistake”
There are no factories in the centre of the city.
T: There are no parks in the centre of the city.
St: There are no factories in the centre of the city.
T: There are several factories in the centre of the city.
St: There are no factories in the centre of the city.
3. Say the same in a different way: “I’m fond of boating. = I enjoy boating.” “He is far from hardworking. = He is rather lazy.”
Exercises:
a) Fill in the beginning of the question:
… book are you reading? – My sister’s.
… are laughing at? – You, my silly girl!
The same exercise can be used twice in a lesson as a link 2 and a link 3 task. If you are afraid of a large crop of mistakes, you’d better draw the attention of the whole class to the challenges involved and to discuss it with the whole class.
b) Rhythm and grammar drill: use the right form of the verb observing regularity of rhythm:
I didn’t tell him where I had (tear) it.
She didn’t ask him what he had (choose).
At first I thought that I had (break) it.
c) Read the sentences aloud so as to render one of the following attitudes: calm and weighty, grim and cold, irritated and agitated, considerate and warm. Let the partner identify the attitude by your intonation.
Link 4
One of the most important. Link 4 is just like link 3 because it also focuses on one chief challenge. And therefore for the most part it works on the level of minimum utterances. But unlike link 3 the drill is provided with a communicative purpose. Here for the first time learners begin to divide their attention between what they say and how they say. Though the chief emphasis is on the “how”. Here you can use substitution tables which invite you to express your own opinion (“what” to say is suggested).
1. Agree or disagree with me, paraphrasing my way of saying it:
T: - Boating is not a pleasure: it’s hard work!
St: - Oh, no, boating never makes me feel tired. I love it.
2. Listen and answer that you do not know or remember it.
- Where did you buy this coat?
- I don’t remember where I bought it.
3. Listen and say what you think of such behaviour: (‘It is kind/selfish of her’)
a) She says she is going to stay with him as long as he is able to take care of himself.
b) She says she is going to stay with him until he is able to take care of himself.
Unfortunately link-4-tasks are practically absent from many text-books. That is why there remains a gap between formal drills and authentic improvised communication.
Link 5
Link 5 completes the stage of practice. It is like link 4 because it can be either truly communicative or pseudo-communicative (simulation). Unlike link 4 it always involves an utterance longer a sentence. After all one can make a monologue based on the same structure. The most important difference: in link-5-tasks the half-shaped skill is tested for its ability to withstand interference. We offer a speech purpose which necessitates the usage of both active and passive, of both direct and indirect questions, etc.
1. Вас упрекают в том, что вы не выполнили все дела, запланированные на неделю. Объясните, что вы многое успели сделать (уточните, когда именно) и скажите, когда вы планируете доделать остальное.
2. Talk your lazy friend into a camping holiday with you. Promise him he won’t have to work hard but will have lots of fun. Use the structure “You’ll have to…, you won’t have to…, you’ll be able to …”
3. Which of the speakers do you agree with? With both to some extent. Explain why.
In link 5 the “what to say” and “how to say” are equally balanced in the student’s mind. It becomes possible due to various “props” or “scaffoldings” (опоры). The teacher can insist that the given structures be used.
Link 6
In link 6 during the performance stage, tasks become really involving, they are always communicative and very creative even if the learner plays a part imposed on him or her. And scaffoldings can be offered but never imposed on the leaner.
At this or that specific lesson we need not necessarily start with link 1 or 2, because sometimes we are not explaining a new thing, we have a revision class and we start with link 3, but sometimes a lesson may seem illogical because you give a receptive task with a communicative potential. (“Listen a short text about Tula and raise you red cards if you can say it about Ryasan”)
Classification of exercises. Chief criteria of exercises.
1. Language exercises vs. speech exercises
2. Classification of ex-s in terms of the 6 “links”
3. Pre-speech ex-s (=links 1-5) vs. speech ex-s (link 6)
4. Non- communicative ex-s vs. communicative ones (subdivided further into pseudo – communicative and communicative proper)
5. Receptive ex-s vs. (re)productive ex-s (Or: receptive – reproductive - productive)
· A receptive – reproductive task (read a short text and reproduce all the facts concerning…)
· A receptive – productive task (listen to a dialogue and explain who the speakers are, what they want and how they treat each other)
· A receptive – reproductive – productive task (listen to the beginning of the joke, reproduce it and complete it in your own way)
6. The major skills involved: reading, listening, speaking, writing or any combination of these.
7. The major aspect of the language: grammar ex-s, lexical, ex-s in pronunciation, intonation, spelling.
8. The main intellectual (=mental interior) operation: recognition (identification = опознавание), decision-making, comparison (one class), analogy (different classes), choice (one among many), selection (набор, e.g. three among ten), substitution, transformation, classification, generalization (обобщение), specification (уточнение), addition (расширение)
It’s link 4, pre-speech exercise, pseudo-communicative, receptive – reproductive (reception is the centre), listening and speaking, intellectual operation: choice based on recognition.
Listen to the utterances and respond in one of the following ways:
It is very kind (unkind of him.
He’s fortunate (unfortunate).
He’s been given a bicycle on his birthday.
He’s ignored by all his friends.
ASPECTS OF TEACHING
21/10/09 Teaching grammar.
1. Selection grammar material.
· Grammar for recognition.
· Grammar for use.
2. Grouping grammar phenomena according to their meaning.
3. Modes of presenting grammar.
4. Ways of explaining grammar.
· Inductive
· Deductive
5. Analysis of grammar phenomena.
6. Grammar exercises
· Receptive
· Reproductive
· Productive
Acquaintance with the chief principles of grammar selection can help you to decide whether this textbook is worth using as a teacher resource or not. And second, when you deal with the group of slow learners, it will help you to decide which material is to be used in your students’ own utterances and which they can merely understand to meet the basic standard.
Grammar
1. Grammar for speaking
2. Grammar for writing
3. Grammar for listening
4. Grammar for reading
Principles of selection:
Grammar for recognition: polysemy of grammar phenomenon (cf. “should” vs. ought to);
Grammar for use (in speaking and writing)
× Ability to serve as a pattern (stylistic neutrality)
(“I knew a women did it every night. She died of it.” “I gonna it”, “Never have I seen”)
× Removal of synonyms. It is good at the opening stage.
× Prevention of wrong associations
(Many a time… If you will do it…(polite), I demand that she come…(subjunctive), I know not (Сие мне не ведомо), He is always doing things like that (Подчеркивается раздражение))
One of the most important principles of selecting grammar material is frequency of occurrence in various types of discourse (writing, reading, speaking).
An overlapping issue is the order in which grammar material is introduced. On one hand we proceed from simple things to more challenging ones and besides new skills should interfere as little as possible with the skills already acquired.
Groups of grammar phenomena
All grammar phenomena can be classified into several groups according to the similarity or difference in the meanings of the English phenomenon and the corresponding Russian phenomena because it tells on the technique of presentation. Of course the easiest is the case where the Russian and the English variant are the same.
| Groups of grammar phenomena in terms of meaning | ||
| Russian @ English | Plural of nouns, degrees of comparison | |
| Doesn’t exist in Russian | There is/are, articles | |
| English>Russian | Took = взял, брал Would do = сделал бы, частенько делал, бывало | |
| Russian>English | Делал = did, was doing, has been doing |
1. We only have differences of form, but not of meaning. In such cases presentation need not involve much Russian. It may be based on pictures or some other kind of direct demonstration.
2. A very difficult case, you have to shape a new concept. You have to start with Russian, you need detailed comparison.
3. The phenomena in English covers a broader scope of meaning than in Russian. This is difficult, but the challenge is that of understanding. Understanding is less challenging than using and reproduction.
4. Russian is broader than English
Group 3 and 4 may overlap. E.g. “In” and “в”. They both mean inside, in emotional state, a certain period of time, but the English “in” also means “через какой-нибудь промежуток времени”. Russian “в” – «где?» and «куда?»
The procedure of presenting this grammar material is practically the same. It always involves comparison with the native language.
Group 1 phenomena.
1. We offer Russian sentence which must illustrate the difference in meaning and the students are to identify this difference. «Профессор читает лекцию» (сейчас), «Читаю я как-то газету» (прошедшее время), «Пусть отдаст книгу, он её уже месяц читает» The teacher helps students to identify each meaning.
2. What helps you identify the meaning? The general context, or specific markers (yet, often)
3. The teacher explains that some of these meanings (or one particular meaning) are rendered by a new grammar phenomena in English.
4. Нужно ли настоящее продолженное при переводе следующих предложений. Simulation translation. (Make-believe translation) Show you cards for the tenses, when you can’t show it, show the red card.
5. Which communicative intentions can be performed with the help of the new grammar. E.g. when do we need present continuous form? Describe the picture. Decline a request.
Group 2. There is\are
Look at the sentences on the blackboard
· Торт в холодильнике
· В холодильнике торт.
Which question does each sentence answer. Где торт? Что в холодильнике?
Что находится у меня в сумке \ комнате \ классе?
Modes of presenting grammar.
1. As part of the language system, obeying certain grammar rules.
2. As a model or sentence pattern (without resorting to any rules) e.g. somebody can’t help V-ing: “my sister can’t help laughing at my mistakes”
As the leading model it is a blind valley, because the students’ minds become overloaded with isolated patterns. And memory fails to function effectively if there is no general regularity. There are some grammar phenomena when this model is the only way out. That is when the rule is too complicated for learners of this age. Or if there is no rule describing this phenomenon.
3. As an inseparable lexical unit (without any substitution of its parts) “How do you do?”
Ways of explaining grammar.
· Inductive – from observation to generalization, from examples to rules
· Deductive (from rules to testing hoe they work)
The deductive way has the advantage of saving more time. Besides it is quite compatible with using various diagrams and charts. The deductive way is preferable in the upper forms, because very often there is less time for English in the ordinary classes. It reflects the mentality of teenagers who are used to all types \\\\, such as formulas, periodic tables. Their thinking is abstract and they respond well to abstract charts.
Induction is more involving, more connecting with hands-on experience, it develops guessing, power of observation and it is more concrete because it starts with example. It corresponds to the mentality of young learners. But it takes more time.
The two approaches complement each other. E.g. you may explain the material inductively in the lesson and then refer the students deductive summing up in charts, textbooks. They may come together within the same explanation. Deduction is never reduced to the teacher’s monologue which must be taken down and learned by heart. No matter whether you proceed from the rule or separate example the presentation procedure is subdivided into minimal steps (minimal study efforts) so that each step is accompanied by some kind of student involvement.
Analysis of grammar phenomena.
Tree different messages: form, usage
× The difficult sound or sound clusters “v-w” or “ing+a” or “s+th”
× The right rhythm.
× The syntactical structure (he readingS)
× Spelling problems, e.g. the doubling of short stressed vowels before “ing” or “-ed”
× Form-bilding problemds: irregular verbs, irregular verbs, irregular plural of nouns
Analysis of meaning
× How many meanings are there, all in all?
× How many should be introduced at once?
o It is necessary to introduce all the meanings at once
o It is possible to introduce two or more meanings, but actually one at a time is enough
o It is wrong to introduce all the meanings, because the nuclear one is ruined by another
× ff
5/02/10 Lecture
Grammar exercises correspond to link 4. They focus on one central grammar challenge. That is the choice being a crucial difficulty. They often corresponds to//// Which are based on the same type of structure.
e.g. fill in the blanks with “some”/”any”/”no” to express your opinion
· …students can learn a foreign language in half a year
· …animal can think
· …man (men) can live without food for a month
Reconstruct the auxiliary and have a short dialogue
· …you study English? ...it difficult? …it take much time?
Complete the sentence and act out the dialogue
- ….did you see? - I…Bill Jones
- … did you meet? - We … at the station.
- … did you go? - We … to a café
- … did you come home - I… home at 11
Finish the phrases logically
· I didn’t go to a dance on Saturday, but I…
· I saw Bill three days ago, but I…
Reproach your imaginary listener: ask why he didn’t do the same
· I got up early today. Why didn’t you …?
· I had a shower before breakfast. Why didn’t you?
· I took a dog for a walk. Why didn’t you …?
Multiple choice expressing one’s attitude
· It is (easier, more difficult, just as easy, just as difficult) to write an essay (as, than) a grammar test
· To a selfish person it is much more important to …. than to … (to love, to have loved, to be loved, to have been loved)
Make up a short monologue based on the given structures
compare any two cities you know well. Use the structure
… is as big (small) as…
… is as noisy (quiet) as…
… is as clean (dirty) as …
You can employ elements of Russian to supply the meaningful choices. (Link 5)
· I want our classes to begin (раньше, позже, в то же время)
· I’d like you to give us (больше, меньше) reading, listening, grammar drills, translation tasks, videotapes.
· I want our lessons to be (длиннее, интереснее, труднее, легче)
A substitution table makes it possible to compose a great numbers of utterances. A substitution table may correspond to link 3, 4 or even 5. Link 3 substitution tables make it possible to construct sentences rather than utterances. The difference between sentence and utterance lies in the communicative task or communicative situation.
Частичная сочетаемость
| My father I My friend My parents | Am Is are | Reading Doing Making Writing Watching Washing | Morning exercises Letters Television A book Dishes Supper |
It is god for presentation but not for drills.
Communicative substitution table. They make it possible to express separate ideas with listening to or listening or they enable student to compose dialogues connected utterances
А какого отношения к себе вы ждете от окружающих. hoe do you want others to think about you
| I | Don’t want Always want | People My friend My teachers | To think I am a child To help me with my English To leave me alone To go for a walk with me |
Mini dialogues based on sequence of tenses. Explain why you did not do somethink the other person expected you to do
| Why didn’t you? · come in time · wake me up · phone me · do the shopping · buy some bread | · I thought · I hoped · I was sure · I was afraid · I didn’t know | · Somebody else (сделает это) · You (уже ушел) home · You (не работаешь) on Saturday · (у нас есть) enough · You (занят) |
Offer your listener an alternative
| Shall I make tea? Shall we accept the invitation? Shall we go to the movies? Shall we finish it now? | Or would you rather | Give a polite excuse? Have some coffee? Go to a dance? Wait for John? |
Sometimes a substitution table may be based on questions which should be answered so that later the student asking questions could sum up the ideas of his desk mates. or a table which requires
| There are | Teachers Pupils people | who | Never read books See in the dark Enjoy taking exam Feel happy alone Enjoy to give students bad marks |
Answers:
· Oh, yes, there are many people
· Oh, yes there are very few
· Oh, no there are no such people
Some substitution tables correspond to link 5 task. That is they bring together antagonistic (conflicting) structure and check how solid the skill is whether it can withstand the pressure of interference.
| Do you Can you Must you Are you | Fond of (dogs, cats, cakes)? Like (skating, swimming)? Often (angry, happy, sad)? Sleep till nine? watch TV every day? Swim well? Afraid of (tests)? Always agree with teachers |
And then people sum up what they have learned about each other.
An essential part of grammar exercises consist in oral drills. Stimulus responds drills. The teacher (student) provides the stimulus and the student gives a respond///
There are several types of students’ respond exercises. The simpliest type is imitation.
Listen and answer the question. Ask similar question in return
- Do you mind being criticized?
- No, I don’t. Do you mind being criticized?
Listen and say that you also think or do not think so.
- Girls work harder than boys
- I don’t think that …
Listen and agree with the speaker. Or disagree by adding “not”
- April is as warm as May, isn’t it?
- Oh, no, April is not as warm..
Listen and say that it was done a day, a year later or earlier
- TV was invented in the nineteenth century
- Oh, no. TV was invented in 20th century
Transformation
Listen and say that that you know or do not know the answer. If you do, give it please
· When was Pushkin born? – I know, when was born in 1799!
Listen and say that you don’t deserve the praise or the critisizm
- What a sweet poem you wrote for the wall-newspaper.
- Or, but the poem wasn’t written by me
Construction
Teaching vocabulary
1. Selection of vocabulary
2. Analysis of vocabulary units
3. Presenting the meaning of vocabulary items (семантизация вокабуляра)
4. Exercises aimed at teaching vocabulary units
A study-effort (учебно-лексическая единица) a word as a paradigm of word-forms following the rules of the language (boy – boys – boy’s), in one of its meanings (or in more than one if the other meanings stem naturally and easily from the nuclear one)
Criteria for selecting (З.М. Цветкова)
· Combinability (that of the word “have” is almost unlimited; that of “clench” is reduced to “fists” and “teeth”)
· Frequency of occurrence in various types of discourse
· Word-building power (the most frequently occurred prefixes and suffixes)
· Polysemy
· Conformity to the rules of reading (requirements is vital only for the initial stage)
· Stylistic neutrality (heaven - sky)
· Structural value
“Negative criteria”
· international words (football, evolution) and geographical names, which are understood without effort;
· derivatives (write – writer; enjoy – enjoyable)
· ordinal numeral (except “first” or “second” as unidentifiable by form)
· compound words, when the meaning of the of the whole evidently proceeds from the meaning of its parts: “a letter-box”, “a reading-lamp” (but not “a hot-bed” or a “river-horse”, “sweetmeat”)
· grammar terms (these can simply be avoided unless absolutely necessary, or introduced in the mother tongue)
Decrypting value – the ability of a word to present the meanings of any others (to do, very, thing, man, person)
Cross – thematic potential – the ability of a word to be used when talking practically any topic. (warm – hearted, warm clothes, warm look, warm weather)