Theme: Academic styles (Part II)
Objectives:analyze the features of definitions; to look atParallel structure
Methodical instructions: This theme must be worked out during two lessons a week
according to timetable and its result can be achieved through extension the use of academic
language in speech activity: speaking, reading, writing and listening:
- The formation of listening skills can be developed when using a class video;
- The development of writing skills must be exercised through self-work tasks;
- Reading skills should be improved in course of working on training materials the content
of which is intended to be understood in full;
- Speaking skills can be developed through active communication on the Unit’s topics.
Listening:Watch a video Parallel structure or parallelism on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvDNvS2M3QA
After watching this videodo the following task: TRUE,FALSE or NOT GIVEN:
1.Parallel structure means that your sentence has a balance in grammar.
2. According to the speaker the sentence “When talking to the group, he spoke sincerely and with passion” is correct.
3.The sentence “The cafeteria was messy, noisy and it was crowded” has a parallelism.
4.The sentence “Trying desperately to find his keys, he looked in his bedroom, the sofa, and on the kitchen counter” can not be changed into parallel structure.
5. The last example sentence has Active and Passive Voices in one sentence and that’s incorrect.
Task 1.Features of definitions.
When writing about a topic, it is essential to clarify your terms. i.e., to explain clearly what you mean by key words in the essay.
WRITING EXTENDED DEFINITIONS(1)
If you were wгiting about human resource mаnаgеmеnt,fогexample,уоu would need to explain what уоu mеаnt bу humаn resources, so that both thе writеr аnd the rеаdеr hаvеexactly the same intегрrеtаtiоn of thе term. You will оftеn find that definitions from at least part оf thе intrоduсtогу texts to уоur subjectаrеа.
Тhе extent to whiсh уоu nееd to define уоur tеrms will depend on уоur rеаdеr and уоur purpose fоr writing. Fоr example, if уоu аrе new to the subject area then will need toclarify some of the most basic terms, for yourself (as well as, perhaps, your tutor). As you gainа deeper knowledge and understandingоf the subject, and уоu аге writing fоr specialists, thе mеаning of сеrtаin key tеrms can be assumed as a part of shаrеd knowledge.
1.1 Study the Definitions 1-2, which have been taken from the projects of students. Identify the features of the definitions from 1-2 below:
1. A formal definition, e.g., from a dictionary or an expert in the field
2. An expansion of the definition with an explanation and/or example
3. A comment on the definition by the writer
4. References
Definition 1: Language aptitude
Some people have a nature language ability, which makes them adept at learning foreign languages, whereas others are rather poor at this and struggle to acquire a basic communicative ability in the language. A factor that makes a difference to the individual is often referred to as language aptitude. Although difficult to define in concrete terms, it is understood to be not necessary the ability to learn the language in the classroom, but rather to be able to apply this knowledge in a real-life situation (Cook, 1991). While some people argue that this ability is not fixed, Carroll (1981) believes that aptitude is an innate or stable factor, which cannot be changed through training and is constant throughout one’s life. He also insists that is it not related to past learning experience. This implies that language aptitude is not something that is accumulated as we age, but something we are born with. This may sound demotivating for those who are not equipped with language aptitude. However, as Ellis (1994) suggests, aptitude is only a facilitator which encourages learning, especially in accelerating the rate of learning, but does not determine learning.
Definition 2: Critical thinking
As the importance of critical thinking has become widely accepted, scholars and theorists have attempted to establish a clear definition. Critical thinking can be traced back more than 2500 years to Socrates’ time. Paul, Elder, and Bartell (1997) explained that it was originally defined as a method for arriving at the truth and analyzing complex ideas. This method of questioning, now known as ‘Socratic questioning’, is a series of questions about a certain issue used to investigate that issue by applying logical points of view.
However, the actual term ‘critical thinking’ only emerged in the 20th century. Renaud and Murray (2008) then assembled several popular definitions of critical thinking (e.g., Ennis, 1985; Furedy and Furedy, 1984; Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005; Watson and Glaser, 1980) which contain the following five common elements: identifying central issues and assumptions, making correct inferences from data, deducting conclusions from data provided, interpreting whether conclusions are warranted, and evaluating evidence or authority. Other elements of critical thinking include: making a statement or argument supported with evidence (Beyer, 1987), recognizing important relationships (Ennis, 1985; Furedy and Furedy, 1984; Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005), defining a problem (Dressel and Mayhew, 1954; Ennis, 1985), and forming relevant hypothese (Dressel and Mayhew, 1954; Ennis, 1985).
Despite this range, one of the definitions of critical thinking which is extensively accepted and frequently cited in academic works comes from the work of Michael Scriven and Richard Paul.
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. (Scriven and Paul, 1987, p. 5)
1.2 Now complete the table below by ticking (V) the appropriate cells.
| Feature | ||
| a formal definition, e.g., from a dictionary or an expert in the field | ||
| an expansion of the definition with an explanation and/or examples | ||
| a comment on the definition by the writer | ||
| References |
Task 2. Parallel structure
Parallelism is an important element in English writing, especially when you are listing and comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means that each item in a list or comparison follows the same grammatical pattern. If you are writing a list and the first item in your list is a noun, write all the following items as nouns also. If the first item is an -ing word, make all the others -ing words; if it is an adverb
clause, make all the others adverb clauses.
In the examples that follow, the sentences in the column on the right follow the rule of parallelism
| Not Parallel | Parallel |
| My English conversation class is made up of Chinese, Spaniards, and some are from Bosnia. | My English conversation class is made up of Chinese, Spaniards, and Bosnians. (The items are all nouns.) |
| The students who do well attend class, they do their homework, and practice speaking in English. | The students who do well attend class, do their homework,andpractice speaking in English. (The items are all verbs + complements.) |
| The teacher wanted to know which country we came from and our future goals. | The teacher wanted to know which country we came fromand what our future goals were. (The items are both noun clauses.) |
| The language skills of the students in the evening classes are the same as the day classes. | The language skills ofthe students in the evening classesare the same asthe language skills of the students in the day classes. (The items are both noun phrases.) |
Notes
1. You may substitute a pronoun for the second "the language skills" in the last example:
The language skills of the students in the evening classes are the same as those of the students in the day classes.
2. All the words in the first item do not always have to be repeated in the second. You may repeat all or some of the words, depending on what you wish to emphasize. The following sentences are both correct:
Before you write a paperorbefore you take a test, you must organize your thoughts.
Before you write a paperortake a test, you must organize your thoughts.
Parallelism with Coordinators: And, Or, But
Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, or, and but are written in parallel form. Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following sentences:
The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobile exhausts,and the Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.
The states regulate the noise created by motor vehiclesbut not by commercial aircraft.
Pesticides cannot be sold if they have a harmful effect on humans, on animal life, or on the environment
Parallelism with Correlative (Paired) Conjunctions
Use parallel forms with the paired conjunctions both ... and, either . .. or,neither . .. nor, and not only . .. but also.
Paired conjunctions are placed directly before the elements they join in the sentence.Notice the parallel structures in these clauses joined by paired conjunctions:
A new law provides the means for bothregulating pesticidesandordering theirremoval if they are dangerous.
Air pollutants may come eitherfrom the ocean as natural contaminants given offby sea lifeorfrom the internal combustion engines of automobiles.
If neitherindustry northe public works toward reducing pollution problems,future generations will suffer.
Many people are neitherconcerned about pollutantsnorworried about theirfuture impact.
At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed not onlytoreduce the pollutants at their sources but alsoto set up acceptable standards of air quality.
2.1 Two or more items in each of the following sentences are written in parallel grammatical form. Underline the items or ideas that are parallel, and circle the word or words that connect the parallel structures. The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. An ideal environment for studying includes good lighting, a spacious desk, anda comfortable chair.
2. You know you are truly fluent in another language when you can calculate in it and when you begin to dream in it.
3. People often spend as much time worrying about the future as planning for it.
4. You can learn a second language in the classroom, at home, or in a country where the language is spoken.
5. My new personal computer is both fast and reliable.
6. My old typewriter is neither fast nor reliable.
7. Ann is growing older but unfortunately not wiser.
8. Young people buy computers not only to do schoolwork but also to play games.
9. If industrial nations continue to bum fossil fuels and if developing nations continue to bum their rain forests, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere will continue to increase.
10. Before the judge announced the punishment, he asked the murderer if he wanted to speak either to the victim's family or to the jury.
11. The criminal neither admitted guilt nor asked for forgiveness before hewas sent to prison.
2.2 Rewrite the following sentences in parallel form. Underline the part of the sentence that is not parallel and correct it. Remember that you do not have to repeat all the words in the second item. The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. The disadvantages of using a credit card are overspending and you pay highinterest rates.
The disadvantages of using a credit card are overspending and paying highinterest rates.
2. Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can beused in some gas stations.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. You do not need to risk carrying cash or to risk to miss a sale.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. With credit cards, you can either pay your bill with one check, or you canstretch out your payments.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. You can charge both at restaurants and when you stay at hotels.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Many people carry not only credit cards but they also carry cash.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Many people want neither to payoff their balance monthly nor do they likepaying interest.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Not making any payment or to send in only the minimum payment everymonth is poor money management.
________________________________________________________________________________
2.3 On a separate sheet of paper, write seven original sentences in parallel form, using the following conjunctions one time each. Write sentences on the topics suggested, or choose topics of your own.
Andtwo weekend activities you enjoy
Ortwo foods you would not eat/give to a baby
But one school subject that you excel at and onethat you
struggle with
Both… andtwo advantages of being bilingual
either ... ortwo places you might spend a month'svacation or a
honeymoon
neither ... nortwo places you would never spend a month'svacation or a
honeymoon
not only ... but alsotwo reasons to get a college degree
Self work task:
Do practice exercises for correct academic style of the paper. (Appendix 8)
UNIT 11