Perceptions of Gender in Leadership Roles

Sara Alexandersson Anna Sowa

Because of the globalization of the world, different business systems and cultures are brought together. Due to culture being a programming of the mind, different cultural backgrounds could influence people to have different views on what are appropriate roles for women to have. Gender equality can vary substantially between cultures. In some cultures, women will not be allowed to work, go to school, and have limited access to health care. Even though the equality-process is further along in many Western societies, women are still more likely to have low-wage jobs than men and are not as likely to receive a leadership position. Many of the Western industrialized societies, have formulated laws to carry through gender equality at work, and to make sure that women are not facing any type of discrimination in the workplace.

Many organizations are trying to eliminate inequality, discrimination, and prejudice in their workforce. However, the top-ranks of most companies continue to be male dominated, and the barriers for women to reach leadership positions seem to be strong. One highlighted obstacle in the way towards equal leadership opportunity is gender stereotypes. Research based in the United States has shown that leadership positions are often sex typed as a male occupation, and these stereotypes can be a factor in limiting the number of women in leadership positions. Most companies are founded by men and therefore have a male preference for leadership positions, unintended or not. The masculine-leadership culture is dominating, especially near centers of power higher up in the hierarchy. Women aiming for leader positions must try to balance the feminine traits with masculine attributes, since the latter are typically more valued for a leader to have. Stereotypical feminine attributes are traditionally more associated with a non-leadership role, or support roles. Those attributes are referred to as communal and could be defined as sympathetic, and concerned about others. The attributes often associated as male attributes are defined as aggressive and decisive. These male attributes are highly correlated with the traits perceived to be needed in an efficient leader. This could explain the ongoing underrepresentation of women on higher-rank positions in organizations.

Literature suggests that people from different cultures have different attitudes to which leadership style is preferred. Some cultures prefer to have a leader who disciplines and other cultures prefer a leader who gives the employees responsibility, and includes them in the decision-making process. Furthermore, different cultures will view genders differently, and cultural values will influence stereotypes in terms of what occupations are considered more appropriate for men versus women. Most industrialized countries share the norm to support equal employment opportunities for men and women. Gender discrimination, or gender segregation, in employment and other parts of life are not accepted. However, it is known that support of equal employment in top-rank positions has not been successful. There are some differences between countries, but the picture is clear that the disproportionally lower representation of women in leadership positions is a global phenomenon. To be able to understand this phenomenon, gender stereotypes and the perception of gender suitability in leadership positions have been studied. Perception is the way an individual interprets something. All people have learned, through culture, how to perceive certain expectations and understandings of situations. Culture will also influence the perception people have on an ideal leader, and defines the required behavior to be perceived as a leader.

According to The Hofstede Centre (2016), cultures could be compared based on the level of masculinity. A culture that is masculine has a preference for achievement, heroism, and material rewards, whereas a feminine culture prefers modesty, caring, and quality of life. Within masculine societies, business organizations are more likely to promote men and have masculine goals, while in feminine societies, men and women are expected to have similar roles and business organizations are equally likely to promote women and men[2].

1. The title of the article seems to be evident. It is about the difference between men and women in the leadership.

2. The title is written in an easy language understandable to readers that`s why there are no any illustrations to the text.

3. The main topic of the article is gender discrimination in leadership roles in different cultures. The main idea is to understand why the rights of men and women are not equal.

4. The article is based on some scientific studies on this topic. This helps make the article more meaningful.

5. prejudice - предубеждение

masculine - мужской, мужественный

compare – сравнивать

perception – восприятие

6. The article is taken from the Internet source. It was published in 2016.

The article might be regarded a part of a bigger research which deals with the problems of gender inequality.

The authors try to understand why nowadays men dominate in the sphere of business and occupy leading positions.

7. The text can be logically divided into 3 parts.

1. Position of women in different cultures.

2. Gender stereotypes.

3. Science overview of gender phenomenon.

8.

1. The main idea of the paragraph is that in most countries the rights of men and women are not equal, but many countries are trying to increase the range of women's rights.

2. The paragraph tells us that women play a support role and are not perceived as a leader.

3. The paragraph is about the tendency towards reducing gender discrimination in many countries and about the influence of culture on the image of an ideal leader.

9.

1. The key statement of the first paragraph is that even though the equality-process is further along in many Western societies, women still have less work opportunities than men.

2. This part of the article investigates gender stereotypes. The authors believe that the masculine-leadership culture is dominating because male leadership style has attributes which are needed in an efficient leader, namely aggressiveness and decisiveness. Women should have these qualities in order to take a leadership role.

3. The authors further develop the idea that the disproportionally lower representation of women in leadership positions is a global phenomenon. They show that culture influences the perception people have on an ideal leader, and defines the required behavior to be perceived as a leader. Moreover, the authors examine the data received from The Hofstede Centre. Masculine societies have masculine goals, while in feminine societies business organizations are equally likely to promote women and men.

10. As for me, I don’t think that discrimination against women is still a serious problem, because now you can see women in various positions, while previously they were forbidden to work at all. Of course, some barriers exist, but eventually they must disappear completely, because the world is changing and different cultures are being accommodated to the new world.

What is a Welfare State?

The welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and economic well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. The general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization. The sociologist T.H. Marshall described the modern welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism.

A welfare state provides education, housing, sustenance and healthcare for its citizens. It also provides benefits such as pensions and unemployment insurance, and it provides equal wages through price and wage controls. This type of government provides public transportation, childcare, social amenities such as public parks and libraries as well as many other goods and services. Some of these things are paid for through government insurance programs, and others are paid for by taxes. The welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the services provided (i.e., healthcare, education, etc.), as well as directly to individuals ("benefits"). It is funded through redistributionist taxation and is often referred to as a type of "mixed economy". Such taxation usually includes a larger income tax for people with higher incomes, called a progressive tax. Proponents argue that this helps reduce the income gap between the rich and poor.

Most advanced nations are not true welfare states, although many provide at least some social services or programs. In some countries, these goods and services generally are available only to people who meet certain eligibility requirements. Those who meet the requirements, however, are entitled to these benefits. This type of system is frequently referred to as a "safety net" that is designed to help people who are in need. Most often, these systems will provide basic needs such as food and housing. A welfare state is socialist in nature. It redistributes wealth by more heavily taxing the middle and upper classes to provide goods and services for the needy. Even countries that don't practice socialism, however, typically will offer at least some form of safety net. These programs might be available to individuals on a temporary or permanent basis, depending on their needs and circumstances.

Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, as well as the Nordic countries, such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland which employ a system known as the Nordic model. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories; Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal.

One problem that has been associated with welfare states is the difficulty in creating an efficient system. Some countries are unable to provide equitably for all of their citizens. The rationing of goods and services also becomes a problem when too many people depend on the welfare state to provide for their basic needs. Another problem is that many people who are capable of providing for themselves have no motivation to improve their lives because they can rely on the government to provide for them. This often breeds resentment by people who do work and are taxed more heavily to pay for the support of people who do not work.[3]

1. The title of the article evokes interest in the fact that it is written in the interrogative form. The title of the article seems to be evident. It is about the welfare state and its meaning to the society.

2. The author gives the reader a detailed illustration of the welfare state, which helps to understand how it is organized and what its features are.

3. The main topic of the article is the concept of the welfare state and the way the governments provide it. The main idea of the article is that the welfare state is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.

4. The author mentions the sociologist T.H. Marshall and his description of the modern welfare state because he shares his views on this topic. The author names several countries that refer to the modern welfare states: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. Moreover, he also speaks of the classification of the most developed welfare state systems, which belongs to the Danish sociologist Esping-Andersen.

1. sustenance- средства к существованию

amenities- удобства

proponents- сторонники

eligibility- право на участие

2. The article is taken from the website. It deals with the analysis of the welfare state and its effect on the economy of different countries. The aim of the article is to show some benefits and problems of the welfare state.

3. The text can be logically divided into 3 parts:

a. Introduction. The definition of the welfare state

b. Main part (Detailed description):

i. What the government of the welfare state does for the citizens

ii. The safety net and the socialist nature of the welfare state

iii. The examples of modern welfare states

c. Conclusion. Some problems associated with welfare states.

1. The first paragraph is about the welfare state and its definition.

2. The second paragraph tells us about the services that the welfare state provides and how it is sponsored.

3. Then the author speaks about the safety net that most of the advanced nations use.

4. After that, the author lists the modern welfare states and divides the most developed welfare state systems into different categories.

5. Finally, the author points out two problems that the welfare state has. It is the difficulty in creating an efficient system and a lack of motivation to improve your life when you can rely on the government.

1. The key statement of the first paragraph is that the welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and economic well-being of its citizens.

2. A welfare state provides education, housing, sustenance and healthcare for its citizens. It also provides benefits such as pensions and unemployment insurance, and it provides equal wages through price and wage controls. These things are paid for through government insurance programs and by taxes.

3. A "safety net" provides basic needs such as food and housing to help people who are in need and meet certain eligibility requirements. A welfare state is socialist in nature.

4. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories; Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal.

5. The rationing of goods and services also becomes a problem when too many people depend on the welfare state to provide for their basic needs. This often breeds resentment by people who do work and are taxed more heavily to pay for the support of people who do not work.

6. In my opinion, the author gives a complete and understandable description of the welfare state in this article. I would like to point out that this theory substantiates the priority of human values, interests and human rights, and emphasizes the value of every person.