Drilling and Boring Machines

To drillahole usually hole-making machine-tools are used. They can drill a hole according to some specification, they canenlarge it, or they can cut threads for a screw or to create an accurate size or a smooth finish of a hole.

Drilling machines (сверлильные станки) are differ­ent in size and function, fromportable drills to radial drilling machines, multispindleunits, automatic produc­tion machines, and deep-hole-drilling machines.

Boring (расточка) is a process that enlarges holespre­viously drilled, usually with a rotating single-point cut­ter held on a boring bar and fed against a stationary workpiece.

Shapers and Planers

The shaper (поперечно-строгальный станок) is used mainly to produce different flat surfaces. The toolslidesagainst the stationary workpiece and cuts on onestroke,returns to its starting position, and then cuts on the next stroke after a slightlateral displacement. In general, the shaper can make any surface havingstraight-line ele­ments. It uses only one cutting-tool and is relatively slow, because the return stroke isidle. That is why the shaper is seldom found on a mass production line. It is, however, valuable for tool production and forworkshops where flexibility is important and relative slowness is unimpor­tant.

Theplaner (продольно-строгальный станок) is the largest of the reciprocating machine tools. It differs from the shaper, which moves a tool past a fixed workpiece because the planer moves the workpiece to expose a new section to the tool. Like the shaper, the planer is intended to produce vertical, horizontal, or diagonal cuts. It is also possible tomount several tools at one time in any or all toolholders of a planer toexecute multiple simultane­ous cuts.

Grinders

Grinders (шлифовальные станки)remove metal by a rotating abrasivewheel. The wheel is composed of many small grains of abrasive,bonded together, with each grain acting as a miniature cutting tool. The process gives very smooth and accurate finishes. Only a small amount of material isremoved at eachpass of the wheel, so grind­ing machines requirefine wheel regulation. The pressure of the wheel against the workpiece is usually very light, so that grinding can be carried out onfragile materials that cannot be machined by otherconventional devices.

Vocabulary:

milling machine —фрезерный станок

series — серия, ряд

cutting edge — режущий край, острие

circumference — окружность

to feed— подавать

longitudinal— продольный

horizontal — горизонтальный

vertical — вертикальный

versatile — универсальный

flat— плоский

contoured — контурный

angle— угол

slot — прорезь, паз

gear teeth— зубья шестерни

drill — дрель, сверло, сверлить

hole — отверстие

to enlarge— увеличивать

thread— резьба

portable— портативный

unit— единица, целое, узел

previously — ранее

to slide — скользить

stroke— ход

lateral — боковой

displacement— смещение

straight— прямой

idle— на холостом ходу

workshop — цех, мастерская

to mount — крепить

holder — держатель

to execute— выполнять

simultaneous — одновременный

multiple — многочисленный

grinder— шлифовальный станок

wheel — круг, колесо

bonded — скрепленный

to remove — удалять

pass— проход

fine — точный

conventional — обычный

device — устройство, прибор

fragile — хрупкий

General understanding:

1. What is the shape of a cutter in a milling machine?

2. What moves in a milling machine, a table or a cutter?

3. What possible movements has the table of a milling machine?

4. What kind of surfaces and shapes may be machined by a milling machine?

5. What can we use a drilling machine for?

6. What kinds of drilling machines exist?

7. What is rotated while boring, a cutter or a work-piece?

8. Describe the work of a shaper (planer).

9. What must be done to execute multiple simultane­ous cuts on a planer?

10. What is the working tool in a grinder?

11. Can we obtain a very smooth surface after grind­ing and why? 12. Can we grind fragile materials and why?

Translate into English:

1. Токарный станок все еще остается самым важ­ным станком.

2. Все современные токарные станки оборудованы электроприводами.

3. Движение инструмента контролируется с высо­кой точностью.

4. Электропривод позволяет обрабатывать заготов­ку на различных скоростях.

«DIES»

Dies are tools used for the shaping solid materials, especially those employed in the pressworking of cold metals.

In presswork, dies are used in pairs. The smaller die, orpunch, fits inside the larger die, called thematrix or, simply, the die. The metal to be formed, usually a sheet, is placed over the matrix on the press. The punch is mounted on the press and moves down by hydraulic or mechanical force.

A number of different forms of dies areemployed for different operations. The simplest arepiercing dies(пробивной штамп), used forpunching holes. Bending and folding diesare designed to make single or compound bends. A combination die is designed to perform more than one of the above operations in one stroke of the press. A progressive die permits successive forming op­erations with the same die.

In coining, metal is forced to flow into twomatchingdies, each of which bears a engraved design.

Wiredrawing Dies

In the manufacture ofwire, a drawplate (волочильная доска) is usuallyemployed. This tool is a metal plate con­taining a number of holes, successively less in diameter and known as wire dies. A piece of metal is pulled through the largest die to make acoarse wire. This wire is then drawn through the smaller hole, and then the next, un­til the wire is reduced to the desired measurement. Wiredrawing dies are made from extremely hard mate­rials, such as tungsten carbide or diamonds.

Thread-Cutting Dies

For cuttingthreads on bolts or on the outside of pipes, a thread-cutting die (резьбонарезная плашка) is used. It is usually made ofhardened steel in the form of a round plate with a hole in the centre. The hole has a thread. To cut anoutside thread, the die islubricated with oil and simplyscrewed onto an unthreaded bolt or piece of pipe, the same way anut is screwed onto a bolt. The correspond­ing tool for cutting aninside thread, such as that inside anut, is called atap (метчик).

Vocabulary:

chip— стружка

sharp — острый

friction — трение

content — содержание

range — диапазон

inexpensive — недорогой

to permit — позволять, разрешать

common — обычный

tungsten — вольфрам

ingredient — ингредиент

diamond — алмаз

tips — наконечники

ceramic — керамический

truing — правка, наводка, заточка

die — матрица, штамп

matrix — матрица

to employ — применять

to pierce — протыкать, прокалывать

to punch — пробивать отверстие

matching — сочетающийся, парный

coarse — грубый

wire — проволока

to draw — тащить, волочить

thread — резьба

hardened — закаленный

to lubricate — смазывать

to screw — привинчивать

nut — гайка

outside — наружный, внешний

inside — внутри, внутренний

Find English equivalents in the text:

1. удалять металлическую стружку

2. острый режущий край

3. содержание углерода

4. режущая способность

5. сталь для скоростного резания

6. правка шлифовальных кругов

7. гидравлическое или механическое давление

8. различные формы штампов

«COMPOSITE MATERIALS»

The combinations of two or more different materials are called composite materials. They usually have unique mechanical and physical properties because they combine the best properties of different materials. For example, afibre-glass reinforced plastic combines the high strength of thin glassfibres with the ductility and chemi­cal resistance of plastic. Nowadays composites are being used for structures such as bridges, boat-building etc.

Composite materials usually consist of synthetic fi­bres within a matrix, a material that surrounds and is tightly bound to the fibres. The most widely used type of composite material ispolymer matrix composites(PMCs). PMCs consist of fibres made of a ceramic mate­rial such as carbon or glass embedded in a plastic matrix. Usually the fibres make up about 60 per cent by volume. Composites with metal matrices or ceramic matrices are calledmetal matrix composites (MMCs) andceramic matrix composites (CMCs), respectively.

Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural applications. Thespecific strength(strength-to-density ratio) andspecific stiffness (elastic modulus-to-density ratio) of continuous carbon fibre PMCs, for example, can be better than metal alloys have. Composites can also have other attractive properties, such as high thermal or electrical conductivity and a low coefficient of thermalexpansion.

Although composite materials have certain advan­tages over conventional materials, composites also have some disadvantages. For example, PMCs and other com­posite materials tend to be highlyanisotropic— that is, their strength, stiffness, and other engineering proper­ties are different depending on the orientation of the com­posite material. For example, if a PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up parallel to one another, then the PMC will be very stiff in the direction parallel to the fibres, but not stiff in the perpendicular direction. The designer who uses composite materials in structures subjected to multidirectional forces, must take these anisotropic properties into account. Also, forming strong connections between separate composite material com­ponents is difficult.

The advanced composites have high manufacturing costs. Fabricating composite materials is a complex proc­ess. However, new manufacturing techniques are devel­oped. It will become possible to produce composite mate­rials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible, accelerating the wider exploitation of these materials.

Vocabulary:

fibreglass— стекловолокно

fibre — волокно, нить

reinforced — упрочненный

expansion — расширение

matrix — матрица

ceramic — керамический

specific strength — удельная прочность

specific stiffness — удельная жесткость

anisotropic — анизотропный

General understanding:

1. What is called «composite materials»?

2. What are the best properties of fibre-glass?

3. What do composite material usually consist of?

4. What is used as matrix in composites?

5. What is used as filler or fibers in composites?

6. How are the composite materials with ceramic and metal matrices called?

7. What are the advantages of composites?

8. What are the disadvantages of composites?

Translate into Russian:

1. PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up parallel to one another.

2. Forming strong connections between separate com­posite material components is difficult.

3. Fabricating composite materials is a complex process.

4. Composite materials have certain advantages over conventional materials

5. Nowadays, composites are being used for structures such as bridges, boat-building etc.

6. Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural applications.

«WELDING»

Welding is a process when metal parts arejoined to­gether by the application of heat, pressure, or a combi­nation of both. The processes of welding can be divided into two main groups:

• pressure welding, when the weld isachieved by pressure and

• heat welding, when the weld is achieved by heat. Heat welding is the most common welding process used today.

Nowadays welding is usedinstead of bolting andriv­eting in the construction of many types of structures, including bridges, buildings, and ships. It is also abasicprocess in themanufacture of machinery and in the mo­tor and aircraft industries. It is necessary almost in all productions where metals are used.

The welding processdepends greatly on the proper­ties of the metals, thepurpose of their application and theavailable equipment. Welding processes are clas­sified according to thesources of heat and pressure used.

The welding processes widely employed today include gas welding, arc welding, and resistancewelding. Other joining processes arelaser welding, andelectron-beam welding.

Gas Welding

Gas welding is a non-pressure process using heat from a gasflame. The flame is applied directly to the metal edges to be joined andsimultaneously to a filler metalin the form ofwire or rod, called the welding rod, which ismelted to thejoint.Gas welding has theadvantage of using equipment that is portable and does notrequire an electric power source. Thesurfaces to be welded and the welding rod arecoated withflux, afusible material that shields the material from air, which would result in a defective weld.

Arc Welding

Arc-welding is the most important welding process for joining steels. It requires a continuous supply of either direct or alternating electrical current. This current is used tocreate an electric arc, which generates enough heat to melt metal and create a weld.

Arc welding has several advantages over other weld­ing methods. Arc welding is faster because the concen­tration of heat is high. Also, fluxes are not necessary in certain methods of arc welding. The most widely used arc-welding processes areshielded metal arc, gas-tung­sten arc, gas-metal arc, andsubmerged arc.

Shielded Metal Arc

In shielded metal-arc welding, a metallic electrode, which conducts electricity, is coated with flux and con­nected to a source of electric current. The metal to be welded is connected to the other end of the same source of current. An electric arc is formed bytouching thetipof the electrode to the metal and then drawing it away. The intense heat of the arc melts both parts to be welded and the point of the metal electrode, which suppliesfillermetal for the weld. This process is used mainly for weld­ing steels.

Vocabulary:

to join — соединять

pressure welding — сварка давлением

heat welding — сварка нагреванием

instead — вместо, взамен

bolting — скрепление болтами

riveting — клепка

basic — основной

to manufacture — изготовлять

to depend — зависеть от

purpose — цель

available — имеющийся в наличии

equipment — оборудование

source — источник

gas welding — газосварка

arc welding — электродуговая сварка

resistance welding — контактная сварка

laser welding — лазерная сварка

electron-beam welding — электронно-лучевая сварка

flame — пламя

edge— край

simultaneously — одновременно

filler — наполнитель

wire — проволока

rod — прут, стержень

to melt — плавить(ся)

joint — соединение, стык

advantage — преимущество

to require — требовать нуждаться

surface— поверхность

coated — покрытый

flux — флюс

fusible — плавкий

to shield — заслонять, защищать

touching — касание

tip — кончик

General understanding:

1. How can a process of welding be defined?

2. What are the two main groups of processes of welding?

3. How can we join metal parts together?

4. What is welding used for nowadays?

5. Where is welding necessary?

6. What do the welding processes of today include?

7. What are the principles of gas welding?

8. What kinds of welding can be used for joining steels?

9. What does arc welding require? 10. What is the difference between the arc welding and shielded-metal welding?

Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. сварка давлением

2. тепловая сварка

3. болтовое (клепаное) соединение

4. процесс сварки

5. зависеть от свойств металлов

6. имеющееся оборудование

7. сварочный электрод

8. плавкий материал

9. дефектный сварной шов

10. непрерывная подача электрического тока

11. электрическая дуга

12. источник электрического тока

«ROBOTS IN MANUFACTURING»

Today most robots are used in manufacturing opera­tions. The applications of robots can be divided into three categories:

1. materialhandling

2. processing operations

3. assembly and inspection.

Material-handling is thetransfer of material and load­ing and unloading of machines. Material-transfer appli­cations require the robot to move materials or work parts from one to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple: robotspick up parts from one conveyor and place them on another. Other transfer operations are more complex, such as placing parts in anarrangement that can be calculated by the robot. Machine loading and un­loading operationsutilize a robot to load and unload parts. This requires the robot to be equipped with agrip-per that cangrasp parts. Usually the gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipu­lates a tool to perform a process on the work part. Exam­ples of such applications includespot welding, continu­ous arc welding andspray painting. Spot welding of au­tomobile bodies is one of the most common applications of industrial robots. The robot positions a spot welder against the automobile panels andframes to join them. Arc welding is a continuous process in which robot moves the welding rod along the welding seam. Spray painting is the manipulation of aspray-painting gun over the sur­face of the object to be coated. Other operations in this category includegrinding andpolishing in which a ro­tatingspindle serves as the robot's tool.

The third application area of industrial robots is as­sembly and inspection. The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost ofmanual labour. But the design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly methods that are satisfactory for humans are not always suitable for ro­bots. Screws and nuts are widely used for fastening in manual assembly, but the same operations are extremely difficult for an one-armed robot.

Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing. In a typical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and determines whether the part answers the quality specifications. In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labour. There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans that can be done by robots:

1. the operation is repetitive, involving the same ba­sic work motions every cycle,

2. the operation ishazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (for example: spray painting, spot weld­ing, arc welding, and certain machine loading and un­loading tasks),

3. the workpiece or tool is too heavy and difficult to handle,

4. the operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.

Vocabulary:

handling — обращение

transfer — передача, перенос

location — местонахождение

pick up — брать, подбирать

arrangement — расположение

to utilize — утилизировать, находить при­менение

gripper — захват

to grasp— схватывать

spot welding — точечная сварка

continuous — непрерывный

arc welding — электродуговая сварка

spray painting — окраска распылением

frame — рама

spray-painting gun — распылитель краски

grinding — шлифование

polishing — полирование

spindle — шпиндель

manual — ручной

labour — труд

hazardous — опасный

shift — смена

General understanding:

1. How are robots used in manufacturing?

2. What is «material handling»?

3. What does a robot need to be equipped with to do loading and unloading operations?

4. What does robot manipulate in robotic processing operation?

5. What is the most common application of robots in automobile manufacturing?

6. What operations could be done by robot in car manu­facturing industry?

7. What are the main reasons to use robots in produc­tion?

8. How can robots inspect the quality of production?

9. What operations could be done by robots in hazard­ous or uncomfortable for the human workers conditions?

Translate into English:

1. Существует несколько различных сфер исполь­зования автоматизации в производстве.

2. Для использования жесткой автоматизации не­обходимы большие инвестиции.

3. Жесткая автоматизация широко используется в

химической промышленности.

4. Станки с числовым программным управлением — хороший пример программируемой автоматизации.

5. Гибкая автоматизация делает возможным пере­программирование оборудования.

6. Время простоя оборудования оборачивается боль­шими убытками.

7. Использование гибкой автоматизации делает воз­можным производство разнообразной продукции.

«WHAT IS A COMPUTER?»

The termcomputer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical) components. Com­puter has no intelligence by itself andis referred to as hardware. A computer system is a combination of five elements:

• Hardware

• Software

• People

• Procedures

• Data/information

When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer system, connectivity becomes the sixth system element. In other words, the manner in which the various individual systems are connected — for ex­ample, by phone lines,microwave transmission, or sat­ellite — is an element of the total computer system.

Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without software instructions, the hardware doesn't know what to do.People, however, are the most important compo­nent of the computer system: they create the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those instructions present.

The basic job of the computer is the processing of in­formation. Computers accept information in the form of instruction called aprogram andcharacters calleddatato perform mathematical and logical operations, and then give the results. The data israw material whileinforma­tion is organized, processed, refined and useful for deci­sion making. Computer is used to convert data into in­formation. Computer is also used to store information in the digital form.

Vocabulary:

characters — символы

data — данные

decision — решение

device — устройство

hardware — оборудование

instruction — команда

intelligence — разум

manner — манера, способ

microwave — микроволновая

procedures — процедуры, операции

purpose — цель

raw — необработанный, сырой

to come to life — оживать

to connect — соединять

to convert — превращать, преобразовывать

to create — создавать

to evaluate — оценивать

to refer to as — называть что-либо

to refine — очищать

to respond — отвечать

transmission — передача

various — различные

General understanding:

1) What does the term «computer» describe?

2) Is computer intelligent?

3) What are five components of computer system?

4) What is connectivity?

5) What is software? What's the difference between hardware and software?

6) Why people are the most important component of a computer system?

7) In what way terms «data» and «information» differ?

8) How does computer convert data into information

Text C: "TYPES OF SOFTWARE»

A computer to complete a job requires more than just the actual equipment or hardware we see and touch. It requires Software — programs for directing the opera­tion of a computer or electronic data.

Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs instruct the hardware how to conduct processing. The computer is merely a general-purpose machine which requires specific software to per­form a given task. Computers can input, calculate, com­pare, and output data as information. Software deter­mines the order in which these operations are performed.

Programs usually fall in one of two categories: sys­temsoftware and applications software.

System software controls standard internal compu­ter activities. An operating system, for example, is a col­lection of system programs that aid in the operation of a computer regardless of the application software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of the sys­tems programs is booted or loaded into the computers memory. This software contains information about memory capacity, the model of the processor, the disk drives to be used, and more. Once the system software is loaded, the applications software can be brought in.

System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These programs are called drivers and coor­dinate peripheral hardware and computer activities. User needs to install a specific driver in order to activate a pe­ripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a printer or a scanner you need to worry in advance about the driver program which, though, commonly goes along with your device. By installing the driver you «teach» your mainboard to «understand» the newly attached part.

Applications software satisfies your specific need. The developers of application software rely mostly on mar­keting research strategies trying to do their best to at­tract more users (buyers) to their software. As the pro­ductivity of the hardware has increased greatly in recent years, the programmers nowadays tend to include as much as possible in one program to make software inter­face look more attractive to the user. These class of pro­grams is the most numerous and perspective from the

marketing point of view.

Data communication within and between computers systems is handled by system software.Communications software transfers data from one computer system to another. These programs usually provide users with data security and error checking along with physically transferring data between the two computer's memories. Dur­ing the past five years the developing electronic network communication has stimulated more and more companies to produce various communication software, such as Web-Browsers for Internet.

Vocabulary:

aid — помощь

to attach — присоединять

control — управление

developer — разработчик

equipment — оборудование

general-purpose — общего назначения

internal — внутренний

mainboard — материнская плата

memory capacity — вместимость памяти

peripheral — периферийный

regard — отношение

regardless — несмотря на, безотносительно,

security — безопасность

specific — конкретный, определенный

to boot — загружать

to check — проверять

to complete — совершать, завершать

to conduct — проводить

to develop — развивать, проявлять

to direct — управлять, руководить

to handle — управлять, обращаться с

to install — устанавливать, встраивать, инсталли­ровать

to provide with — обеспечивать чем-либо

to require — требовать

to secure — обеспечивать безопасность

to transfer — переводить, переносить

Web-browser — «браузер» (программа, позволяю­щая пользователю искать и считывать информацию с глобальной электронной сети Internet)

General understanding

1. What is software?

2. In what two basic groups software (programs) could be divided?

3. What is system software for?

«INTRODUCTION TO THE WWW AND THE INTERNET»

Millions of people around the world use the Internet to search for and retrieve information on all sorts of top­ics in a wide variety of areas including the arts, business, government, humanities, news, politics and recreation. People communicate through electronic mail (e-mail), discussion groups, chat channels and other means of in­formational exchange. They share information and make commercial and business transactions. All this activity is possible because tens of thousands of networks are con­nected to the Internet and exchange information in the same basic ways.

TheWorld Wide Web (WWW) is a part of the Internet. But it's not a collection of networks. Rather, it is information that is connected or linked together like a web. You access this information through one interface or tool called a Web browser. The number of resources and serv­ices that are part of the World Wide Web is growing ex­tremely fast. In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the WWW, and more than half the information that is transferred across the Internet is accessed through the WWW. By using a computer terminal (hard­ware) connected to a network that is a part of the Internet, and by using a program (software) to browse or retrieve information that is a part of the World Wide Web, the people connected to the Internet and World Wide Web through the local providers have access to a variety of information. Each browser provides a graphi­cal interface. You move from place to place, from site to site on the Web by using a mouse to click on a portion of text, icon or region of a map. These items are called hyperlinks or links. Each link you select represents a document, an image, a video clip or an audio file some­where on the Internet. The user doesn't need to know where it is, the browser follows the link.

All sorts of things are available on the WWW. One can use Internet for recreational purposes. Many TV and radio stations broadcast live on the WWW. Essentially, if something can be put into digital format and stored in a computer, then it's available on the WWW. You can even visit museums, gardens, cities throughout the world, learn foreign languages and meet new friends. And, of course, you can play computer games through WWW, competing with partners from other countries and continents.

Just a little bit of exploring the World Wide Web will show you what a lot of use and fun it is.

Vocabulary:

World Wide Web — «Всемирная Паутина»

to retrieve — извлекать

variety — разнообразие, спектр

recreation — развлечение

network — сеть

to share — делить

humanities — гуманитарные науки

business transactions — коммерческие операции

access — доступ

to browse — рассматривать, разглядывать

browser— браузер (программа поиска ин­формации)

to provide — обеспечивать (чем-либо)

provider — провайдер (компания, предоставляю­щая доступ к WWW через местные телефонные сети)

broadcast live — передавать в прямом эфире site — страница, сайт

to link — соединять

hyperlink — гиперссылка

to compete — соревноваться

General understanding:

1) What is Internet used for?

2) Why so many activities such as e-mail and business transactions are possible through the Internet?

3) What is World Wide Web?

4) What is Web browser?

5) What does a user need to have an access to the WWW?

6) What are hyperlinks?

7) What resources are available on the WWW?

8) What are the basic recreational applications of WWW?