Part I. Translation and Rendering. Academic Papers.
Introduction
This textbook is for the students who write English academic essays or articles and prepare reports on their research. In general for those who wish to be introduced to the key concepts of academic English.
It aims to guide students through the writing process to produce well-organized, adequately developed abstracts and essays or research reports as well as to speak about their field of interest in English.
This textbook aims to strengthen students’ skills in and knowledge of English in order to facilitate their research as well as academic studies.
It focuses on increasing students’ knowledge of English grammar and on developing their academic reading skills. Additionally, students are encouraged to expand their academic vocabulary range. They also get involved in translation as a means of introducing students to the lively community of research and cultivating students’ awareness of the scientific style.
Введение
Данное пособие предназначено для аспирантов и магистрантов филологических специальностей, а также для студентов старших курсов. Содержание данного учебного пособия предполагает изучение основных принципов научного перевода с английского языка на русский.
Другая цель, которую преследовали авторы при разработке пособия, — расширение вокабуляра, распознание и использование фраз и клише научного стиля английского языка.
Учебное пособие состоит из двух частей. В первой части учебного пособия собраны основные правила реферирования и перевода научных статей.
Во второй части данного учебного пособия указаны основные принципы предпереводческого анализа текста, подобраны газетные статьи для письменного перевода с английского на русский.
Part I. Translation and Rendering. Academic Papers.
Introduction
Proficiency in academic English is based on the knowledge of scientific style rules. Some dos and don’ts may facilitate the understanding and the feeling for the style. They are introduced in the section below.
Don't:
1) use French lines ( – ) for items in a list or to indicate speech. In lists use numbers (1, 2, 3), letters (A, B, C), or black balls—“bullets” (·).
2) put quotation marks «». Quoted oral or written words in English take quotation marks: “Help!” or ‘Help!’
3) copy or write identical lines in one text. Paraphrase them.
4) use both spellings, choose either that of the US or the UK style.
5) imitate the often out-dated style of the professors or of journal articles published many years ago. Nowadays, style is evolving due to widening democracy and globalization, and also increased printing costs.
6) translate. Of course, you can use your own language to take notes and write outlines. But word-for-word translation causes interference. As a result your speech/paper gets awkward, unclear, and full of errors.
7) use pompous or rare words.
8) give both title and degree(s). Omit one of these, unless forced (as on page one of the thesis) to use both. Professor Timo Koponen, Ph.D(wrong)
PhD Carol Norris (wrong). In English degrees never precede names.
9) use contractions. It’s a very urgent issue…(wrong)
10) use future, choose present/past tense forms. This paper will examine …or this research will…(wrong) - This paper examines/has examined/examined…
11) use emotive or visual words. Unemployment is terrible(wrong). - Unemployment is problematic / damaging.
12) use phrasal verbs, use one word verbs. The numbers went up(wrong).- The numbers rose.
Do:
1) FOCUS
Every sentence should present its background information first: WHO, WHERE, WHEN (+HOW, WHY). Then end-focus on the WHAT. Most important is the end: the new information.
"The result may be excellent, as shown by our study" re-write with end-focus: "As shown by our study, the result may be excellent."
2) Use more active verbs.
Re-write the sample again and put it into active voice "Our study shows that the result may be excellent."
3) COHESION
Your paper should be well-structured. Each item should be classified.
1. paragraph = an often-indented unit usually covering one major point.
2. section = such as Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion.
3. chapter = a long portion of a book, comprising many pages.
The different parts are to be linked together by means of connectives.
4) remove any useless or extra word/information. Be precise.
Avoid vague «so».
SoX occurred (wrong) (thus/therefore?) or It was sofast (How fast?) (wrong).
Avoid vague adjectives like "very" and "many." Try to quantify your findings with specific numbers or conditions that offer comparisons.
Many interlocutors participated…(wrong) How many?
7) master the terminology and phraseology specific to a field, regular reading of the relevant literature is necessary for this. Read more linguistic papers in journals to get a feeling for the style.
8) remember the KISS Rule: “Keep it Short and Simple”.
Clarity and readability are above all. To avoid ambiguity check connotations in an English-to-English dictionary.
9) avoid personal pronouns like "I" or "we."
My study…or Iwrite about... (wrong)
10) Make sure that you use appropriate vocabulary. Remember that scientific English is quite a different register from spoken English. For first drafts, use common verbs (“to be / have / get / find out”); then be more specific.
Create your Academic WordList. Each time you come across a scientific word write it out and search for the family of words. Make a list of such words.
Simple version: analyse - analysis - analytical – analytically
Full version:
analyse
analysed
analyser
analysers
analyses
analysing
analysis
analyst
analysts
analytic
analytical
analytically
analyze
analyzed
analyzes
analyzing
Besides the family of the word you may add word combinations. Below are the search results for «approach» in a dictionary. What do they mean?
Упражнение 1
Перефразируйте выражения. Приведите примеры, как можно их использовать, говоря о/ об (Вашем) исследовании.
1.softly-softly approach
2.the approach of something
3.stop-go approach/policies etc
4.adopt an approach/policy/attitude etc
5.cost-benefit analysis/study/approach
6.laissez-faire attitude/approach etc
7 take/treat/approach something lightly
Упражнение 2
Найдите и выпишите из словаря выражения с указанными словами. Придумайте примеры, которые иллюстрируют, как их можно использовать в предложении:
approach
assume
concept
interpret
research
experiment
study
Упражнение 3
Упражнение 4
Упражнение 5
Упражнение 6
Добавьте в предложения наречия. Если стоит знак (+), требуется усиление значения; если (-) - ослабление.
e.g. Smoking kills people. (+) Smoking definitely kills people.
1. Learning a foreign language makes students more open-minded. (-)
2. Learning a language takes time. (+)
3. Qualifications are useful. (+)
4. Qualifications are useful. (-)
5. Democracy is not the best political system. (-)
6. The evidence was weak. (+)
7. The unemployment rate rose. (-)
8. The unemployment rate rose. (+)
9. The professor was on time. (-)
10.Cheating is wrong. (+)
Abstract
STEP 2 Identify keywords
Choose the words that can help the researchers find your paper.
STER 3 Reread your research paper and underline the important points and copy them into a separate document. Review the сopied material and select sentences that help you to explain the research topic, the research question, its methods, results, and conclusion. Retain this material for your abstract.
Introductory sentences
| The paper/article discusses/deals with/develops/presents/provides/studies/features/contains/concentrates on ….. | В работе/статье обсуждается/ведется речь о/развивается / представлен / предоставлен / исследуется / описывается / содержится / внимание cконцентрировано на ... | |
| analyses/considers/explains/describes/establishes/introduces ….. | анализирует / считает / объясняет / описывает / устанавливает / вводит ... | |
| covers/suggests/shows ….. | охватывает / предлагает / демонстрирует ... | |
| demonstrates the feasibility of ….. | демонстрирует возможность ... | |
| opens up a new field/issue | открывает новое направление/ вопрос | |
| gives/aims to give a comprehensive account of ….. | дает / стремится дать всестороннее описание ... | |
| offers a solution to ….. | предлагает решение ... | |
| serves as an introduction to ….. | служит введением к ... | |
| the main objective/purpose of the paper/article is ….. | основная цель / задача работы/статьи ... |
Упражнение 7
Замените разговорный стиль на научный в следующих примерах:
1. This paper tell us about…
2. This article tries to describe…
3. It is a start for…
4. The idea of the paper is…
5. We use this idea to…
6. We show the readers that…
7. The article deals with…
8. The study shows the possibility of…
Упражнение 8
Прочитайте пример аннотации ниже и ответьте на вопросы: [http://www.thewritesource.com/apa/apa.pdf]
1) Does the abstract summarize the problem?
2) Does it name the participants?
3) What is/was the hypothesis?
4) Are the methods, results mentioned?
5) What are the conclusions?
6) Does it make you interested?
7) Which expressions has the author used in the abstract? Write them out and learn.
This study examined the effects of short-term food deprivation on two cognitive abilities—concentration and perseverance. Undergraduate students were tested on both a concentration task and a perseverance task after one of three levels of food deprivation: none, 12 hours, or 24 hours. We predicted that food deprivation would impair both significant effect on concentration scores, which is consistent with recent research on the effects of food deprivation. However, participants in the 12-hour deprivation group spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than those in both the control and 24-hour deprivation groups, suggesting that short-term deprivation may affect some aspects of cognition and not others.
Упражнение 9
Упражнение 10
Research Paper
Useful Phrases
This guide is intended to help students organize and write a quality research paper.
As an academic or student researcher, decide how you want to publish your research - as a conference paper, a journal article, a book chapter, a book?
If choosing a journal or a conference, answer the questions:
What is the quality of the publication?
What Impact Factor does it have?
What is its relative ranking within its subject field?
When you conduct your academic research, you join a community of scholars in a chain of conversation and truth seeking that has gone on for centuries before you (find an example of a research paper attached at the end of this textbook).
In the Internet age, you have more access to more of that collected information than anyone else has ever had. Digital literacy will help you to complete your assignments. But remember that a quick Google or Wikipedia search may suit only in some scenarios, but, for academic research, that’s just an initial step.
Although there is no single «correct» way to speak about your research, there are certain steps that can make your research sound more efficient and effective.
Introduction
In most cases, the Introduction section is treated as a whole and is not divided into subsections. The subheadings below should help you organize the information.
1.1. Problem background, state of the art
| ... plays an important/vital role in | ... Играет важную / важную роль в ... | |
| …is an important issue for ….. | …это важный вопрос для ... | |
| …is extensively/widely used in | ... Широко / широко используется в ... | |
| …is a very effective method for | …это очень эффективный способ для… | |
| In the last few years there has been a growing interest in … | ... За последние несколько лет значительно вырос интерес к… | |
| Quite recently, considerable attention has been paid to … | Совсем недавно, значительное внимание стало уделяться... | |
| …have/has been utilized in …such as … | …был использован во многих … таких как ... |
Упражнение 11
Упражнение 12
Упражнение 13
Упражнение 14
Упражнение 15
Body of the paper
In this section your points and ideas are argued in a logical and systematic manner. You are supposed to introduce your point of view and provide prove. Evidence is presented to support your thesis. The data gathered to support your thesis is presented in graphical form and simplified in text.
In the body the subtopics include presentation of experiments, discussion of findings and literature review.
The number of paragraphs that form the body depend on the expected length of your paper and the number of the points.
As the Body of the paper is very specific in its content, the number of generally applicable phrases is smaller than in the other parts.
2.1. Materials and Methods
- Describing what was done and how it was done
| We started by investigating … | Мы начали с исследования … | |
| We designed a new technique for … | Мы разработали новый подход для … | |
| We used a new approach. | Мы использовали новый подход. | |
| These experiments were carried out to find out … | Эти эксперименты были выполнены, чтобы узнать ….. | |
| In order to verify the validity of the ... method, we carried out several experiments. | Чтобы проверить валидность ….. метода, мы провели несколько экспериментов. | |
| All the tests/measurements were carried out ... | Все тесты/измерения были выполнены ... | |
| To illustrate .., a simulation was performed. | Чтобы проиллюстрировать ….., было выполнено моделирование. | |
| (structure of …..) was examined by (the ….. technique). | (структура ...) была изучена при помощи (… методом). | |
| The … analysis was performed in order to … | …анализ был выполнен, чтобы … |
- Describing numerical methods
| The …. that describes ... is as follows… | …, которое описывает... следующим образом … | |
| …represents/defines/expresses | … представляет/определяет/выражает | |
| Thus, the following … is obtained | Таким образом получено следующее … | |
| … can be computed by | … может быть вычислено при помощи | |
| … demonstrate that … | … демонстрирует, что … | |
| implies that ….. | подразумевает, что… | |
| To simplify … we can … | Чтобы упростить …, мы можем … | |
| It follows from … | Это следует из … | |
| Substituting/inserting…, we obtain …. | Занимая место/подставляя …, мы получаем …. | |
| We can now proceed analogously to … | Мы можем теперь продолжить аналогично с … | |
| Similarly, …is also valid/true for the following … | Точно так же … действительно/верно для следующих ... | |
| This is true for ... | Это верно для … | |
| We will make the following assumptions: | Мы сделаем следующие предположения: | |
| … From now on we assume that … | … С этого времени мы принимаем, что … | |
| Let us define the following dependence/relation as … | Давайте определим следующую зависимость/отношение как … | |
| According to …we have/obtain … | Согласно … мы имеем/получаем … | |
| As is clear from … | Как ясно из … | |
| It is clear/evident/obvious that ... | Это ясно/очевидно, что ... |
-
- Referring to figures, graphs, tables, diagrams
Opponents, reviewers, editors and listeners appreciate charts and diagrams. A picture is worth thousands of words.
Dos and don’ts:
1.Never add a space between number and percentage sign: “6%”never “6 %.”
2. Don't start the sentence with numerals. “32 of the 76 men attended” (wrong)
“Of the 76 men, 32 attended.”
3. Group your large numbers into trios (12 345 000), with spaces and no periods. Or, in the older style, insert commas (12,345,000) between trios.
4.The decimal in Anglo-US texts is a point (5.75).
5. Never use the word “percents” in plural, use “percentages”
Describing figures, graphs, tables, diagrams etc.
| ... is/are shown/given in Figs. … and ... | .. показан(ы)/дан(ы) на Рис.… и... | |
| As can be seen from Figs. .. and…, … | Как видно на Рис.... и …, … | |
| As follows from the figures shown above, … | Как следует из вышеуказанных значений/цифр, … | |
| As shown in Fig. … | Как показано на Рис. … | |
| … can be found in Fig… | … может быть найден на Рис. … | |
| Fig.…shows/presents/depicts/outlines/illustrates … | Рис. показывает/представляет/изображает/ обрисовывает в общих чертах/иллюстрирует … | |
| Fig…. gives an example of … | Рис. …. дает пример … | |
| Such cases are depicted in the following figures. This is illustrated in Fig. … | Такие случаи отображены в следующих цифрах. Это проиллюстрировано на Рис. … | |
| Consider Fig. …, which plots ... versus ... | Рассмотрите Рис. …, который описывает... против.. | |
| For visual representation of the dependence ... | Для визуального представления зависимости... | |
| Table … summarizes … | Таблица … резюмирует … | |
| The graph/diagram suggests/indicates that … | График/диаграмма предполагает/указывает, что … |
Упражнение 16
Опишите схему синтаксического разбора предложения «The Boss ate soup» (см. Рисунок). Используйте активные выражения.
Упражнение 17
Упражнение 18
Упражнение 19
Упражнение 20
Упражнение 21
Упражнение 22
Найдите эквиваленты к следующим выражениям:
Окончательные результаты - a number of possible limitations - результаты согласовываются с другими исследованиями - in contrast to some reports in the literature - вероятное объяснение отрицательного результата - the data obtained - основные результаты - to our knowledge - оригинальность решения - the main concern of the paper - главная цель работы – to consider consequences - значение результатов
Упражнение 23
Ответьте на вопросы (о результатах своего исследования):
1. Are the results of your research conclusive?
2. What is the contribution of your paper?
3. Is the significance of your finding clear?
4. Are there any negative results obtained?
5. Do the results agree with other studies in this field?
6. What gets particular attention in your paper?
7. What do you examine/study in your paper?
8. What is the originality of our solution?
9. What does the experiment/quiz/questionnaire demonstrate?
10.What do you draw the attention to?
Conclusion(s)
This section is used to provide a summary of your paper. The conclusion reveals the relationship between different parts and points made throughout the paper.
It also is an opportunity to re-examine your thesis statement and reveal whether your assertions were confirmed. Remember that you are required to provide a solution to the problems stated in the introduction.
There must be a co-relation between the sections in terms of ideas and a logical flow.
- Drawing conclusions
| From the research that has been carried out/done/conducted/performed/undertaken, it is possible to conclude that … | По результатам исследования, которое было проведено /выполнено, можно сделать вывод, что … | |
| Based on the results, it can be concluded that the research into … has been very successful. | На основе результатов можно прийти к заключению, что исследование … было очень успешно. | |
| From the outcome of our investigation it is possible to conclude that … | Из результата нашего расследования можно сделать вывод, что … | |
| This paper has clearly shown that … | Эта работа ясно показала, что … | |
| In conclusion, it is evident that this study has shown … | В итоге стало очевидно, что это исследование показало … | |
| It has been demonstrated/shown/found that … | Было продемонстрировано/показано/обнаружено, что … | |
| The findings of our research are quite convincing, and thus the following conclusions can be drawn: … | Результаты нашего исследования довольно убедительны, и таким образом могут быть сделаны следующие выводы: … | |
| Summing up the results, it can be concluded that … | Анализируя результаты, можно сделать вывод, что… | |
| The results/data obtained indicate/have indicated/suggest/show that … | Полученные результаты/данные указывают/, указали/предлагают/показывают, что… | |
| The existence of … implies that … | Существование … подразумевает, что … |
-
Упражнение 24
Найдите эквиваленты к следующим выражениям:
Результаты довольно убедительны - the existence implies - сделать вывод, что - summing up the results - можно прийти к заключению - it has been demonstrated - обнаружено, что - based on the results
Application
- Suggesting possible application(s)
| The proposed method can be readily used in practice. The technique/approach/result is applicable to … | Предложенный метод может с готовностью использоваться на практике. Техника/подход/результат применима/м к … | |
| … can be successfully used for a number of ….. | … может успешно использоваться для многих ….. | |
| The/our ….. has great potential for other … such as … | наш ….. имеет большой потенциал для других …, таких как … | |
| This research was concerned with...; however, the results should be applicable also to … | Это исследование касалось...; однако, результаты должны быть применимы также к … | |
| The findings suggest that this approach could also be useful for … | Результаты предполагают, что этот подход мог также быть полезен для … | |
| The findings are of direct practical relevance. | Результаты имеют прямую практическую значимость. |
Упражнение 25
Упражнение 26
Acknowledgement
This section includes thanking and acknowledging assistance.
Dos and dont's
Avoid creating a dozen splendid phrases “Heartfelt thanks go to / My deepest appreciation / I am deeply indebted to / I warmly thank / my sincere gratitude goes to / X deserves thanks /
X earns my thanks / my gratitude overflows—” (wrong).
Instead, collect helpful individuals into cohesive groups. Use one gratitude phrase at the beginning of each group’s paragraph.
One phrase or line per person then shows why you are grateful to each, e.g.
“My warmest appreciation goes to A for his constant wise guidance, to C for her humour and cheery encouragement, to D for his aid with statistics, to E, G, and K for their faithful support, and to L and M for excellent laboratory assistance.”
- Ways to express acknowledgment
| The authors would like to thank their colleagues/Dr X and Dr Y for… useful comments/ their valuable insights and recommendations/technical assistance/contribution in conducting some of the experiments for the research | Авторы хотели бы поблагодарить своих коллег/Доктора X и доктора Y за… полезные комментарии / их ценную помощь и рекомендации / техническую поддержку/вклад в проведение некоторых экспериментов для исследования … | |
| The authors´ thanks are also extended to Dr Z for his support and help in completing the paper. | Авторы также благодарят доктора Z за его поддержку и помощь в завершении работы. | |
| The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable comments and suggestions of the reviewers, which have improved the quality of this paper. | Авторы хотели бы выразить признательность за ценные комментарии и предложения рецензентов, которые улучшили качество этой работы. | |
| Fruitful discussions in the early stages of experiments with Professor X are gratefully acknowledged. | Особая благодарность за плодотворные обсуждения на стадии обсуждения экспериментов профессору X. | |
| The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and support of … | Авторы хотят поблагодарить за помощь и поддержку … | |
| The authors´ thanks are due to Dr X for kindly granting permission to include Fig. ... | Авторы выражают благодарность доктору X за то, что любезно дал согласие на размещение включать Рис... | |
| The author would like to extend his/her thanks to (name of institution) for its support in implementing the project. | Автор хотел бы также поблагодарить (название учреждения) за поддержку в осуществлении проекта. | |
| The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous financial support of (name of institution). | Авторы с благодарностью признают щедрую финансовую поддержку (название учреждения). | |
| Financial support …, Grant No. …, (project topic), is gratefully acknowledged. | Особая благодарность за финансовую поддержку …, номер Гранта …,(тема проекта). | |
| This research/work was supported by …under Project No… | Это исследование/работа было поддержано/а … в соответствии с проектом № … |
Упражнение 27
Reference List
Dos and don'ts
Prefer the best articles and books. Omit poor, weak papers.
Check and recheck all references and keep a copy of each reference cited.
Errors in references (incorrect or inconsistent order of items, punctuation, upper- versus lower-case letters, abbreviations) are signs of carelessness.
Study the style of your target journal or the style recommended for university theses or reports.
Each reference mentioned must appear in the list, and you should have read them all.
Упражнение 28
EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCH PAPER
"Behavioral Study of Obedience"
by [author], [University]
Abstract
There are little facts about the role of obedience when doing evil actions up until now (2017). Most theories suggest that only very disturbed people do horrible actions if they are ordered to do so. Our experiment tested people's obedience to authority. The results showed that most obey all orders given by the authority-figure. The conclusion is that when it comes to people harming others, the situation a person's in is more important than previously thought. In contrary to earlier belief, individual characteristics are less important.
Introduction
Current theories focus on personal characteristics to explain wrong-doing and how someone can intentionally harm others. In a survey, professionals such as doctors, psychologist and laymen thought that very few out of a population (1-3%) would harm others if ordered to do so.
In the recent war trial with Adolph Eichmann, he claims to "only have been following orders". The author wanted to test whether this is true, or just a cheap explanation. Can people harm others because they obey the orders? Are good-hearted people able to do this?
The experiment will test whether a person can keep giving electric shocks to another person just because they are told to do so. The expectation is that very few will keep giving shocks, and that most persons will disobey the order.
Methods
Participants
There were male 30 participants participating. They were recruited by advertisement in a newspaper and were paid $4.50.
Instruments
A "shock generator" was used to trick the participants into thinking that they gave shock to another person in another room. The shock generator had switches labeled with different voltages, starting at 30 volts and increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts. The switches were also labeled with terms which reminded the participant of how dangerous the shocks were.
Procedures
The participant met another "participant" in the waiting room before the experiment. The other "participant" was an actor. Each participant got the role as a "teacher" who would then deliver a shock to the actor ("learner") every time an incorrect answer was produced. The participant believed that he was delivering real shocks to the learner.
The learner was a confederate who would pretend to be shocked. As the experiment progressed, the teacher would hear the learner plead to be released and complain about a heart condition. Once the 300-volt level had been reached, the learner banged on the wall and demanded to be released. Beyond this point, the learner became completely silent and refused to answer any more questions. The experimenter then instructed the participant to treat this silence as an incorrect response and deliver a further shock.
When asking the experimenter if they should stop, they were instructed to continue.
Results
Of the 40 participants in the study, 26 delivered the maximum shocks. 14 persons did not obey the experimenter and stopped before reaching the highest levels. All 40 participants continued to give shocks up to 300 volts.
Discussion/Conclusion
Most of the participants became very agitated, stressed and angry at the experimenter. Many continued to follow orders all the time even though they were clearly uncomfortable. The study shows that people are able to harm others intentionally if ordered to do so. It shows that the situation is far more important than previously believed, and that personal characteristics are less important in such a situation.
References
Тексты для перевода
Статья 1.
The Guardian, December12, 2016
Статья 2.
The Guardian April 17, 2016
Статья 3.
The New York Times, April 21, 2016
Статья 4.
Статья 5.
The New York Times, February 9, 2015.
Introduction
This textbook is for the students who write English academic essays or articles and prepare reports on their research. In general for those who wish to be introduced to the key concepts of academic English.
It aims to guide students through the writing process to produce well-organized, adequately developed abstracts and essays or research reports as well as to speak about their field of interest in English.
This textbook aims to strengthen students’ skills in and knowledge of English in order to facilitate their research as well as academic studies.
It focuses on increasing students’ knowledge of English grammar and on developing their academic reading skills. Additionally, students are encouraged to expand their academic vocabulary range. They also get involved in translation as a means of introducing students to the lively community of research and cultivating students’ awareness of the scientific style.
Введение
Данное пособие предназначено для аспирантов и магистрантов филологических специальностей, а также для студентов старших курсов. Содержание данного учебного пособия предполагает изучение основных принципов научного перевода с английского языка на русский.
Другая цель, которую преследовали авторы при разработке пособия, — расширение вокабуляра, распознание и использование фраз и клише научного стиля английского языка.
Учебное пособие состоит из двух частей. В первой части учебного пособия собраны основные правила реферирования и перевода научных статей.
Во второй части данного учебного пособия указаны основные принципы предпереводческого анализа текста, подобраны газетные статьи для письменного перевода с английского на русский.
Part I. Translation and Rendering. Academic Papers.
Introduction
Proficiency in academic English is based on the knowledge of scientific style rules. Some dos and don’ts may facilitate the understanding and the feeling for the style. They are introduced in the section below.
Don't:
1) use French lines ( – ) for items in a list or to indicate speech. In lists use numbers (1, 2, 3), letters (A, B, C), or black balls—“bullets” (·).
2) put quotation marks «». Quoted oral or written words in English take quotation marks: “Help!” or ‘Help!’
3) copy or write identical lines in one text. Paraphrase them.
4) use both spellings, choose either that of the US or the UK style.
5) imitate the often out-dated style of the professors or of journal articles published many years ago. Nowadays, style is evolving due to widening democracy and globalization, and also increased printing costs.
6) translate. Of course, you can use your own language to take notes and write outlines. But word-for-word translation causes interference. As a result your speech/paper gets awkward, unclear, and full of errors.
7) use pompous or rare words.
8) give both title and degree(s). Omit one of these, unless forced (as on page one of the thesis) to use both. Professor Timo Koponen, Ph.D(wrong)
PhD Carol Norris (wrong). In English degrees never precede names.
9) use contractions. It’s a very urgent issue…(wrong)
10) use future, choose present/past tense forms. This paper will examine …or this research will…(wrong) - This paper examines/has examined/examined…
11) use emotive or visual words. Unemployment is terrible(wrong). - Unemployment is problematic / damaging.
12) use phrasal verbs, use one word verbs. The numbers went up(wrong).- The numbers rose.
Do:
1) FOCUS
Every sentence should present its background information first: WHO, WHERE, WHEN (+HOW, WHY). Then end-focus on the WHAT. Most important is the end: the new information.
"The result may be excellent, as shown by our study" re-write with end-focus: "As shown by our study, the result may be excellent."
2) Use more active verbs.
Re-write the sample again and put it into active voice "Our study shows that the result may be excellent."
3) COHESION
Your paper should be well-structured. Each item should be classified.
1. paragraph = an often-indented unit usually covering one major point.
2. section = such as Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion.
3. chapter = a long portion of a book, comprising many pages.
The different parts are to be linked together by means of connectives.
4) remove any useless or extra word/information. Be precise.
Avoid vague «so».
SoX occurred (wrong) (thus/therefore?) or It was sofast (How fast?) (wrong).
Avoid vague adjectives like "very" and "many." Try to quantify your findings with specific numbers or conditions that offer comparisons.
Many interlocutors participated…(wrong) How many?
7) master the terminology and phraseology specific to a field, regular reading of the relevant literature is necessary for this. Read more linguistic papers in journals to get a feeling for the style.
8) remember the KISS Rule: “Keep it Short and Simple”.
Clarity and readability are above all. To avoid ambiguity check connotations in an English-to-English dictionary.
9) avoid personal pronouns like "I" or "we."
My study…or Iwrite about... (wrong)
10) Make sure that you use appropriate vocabulary. Remember that scientific English is quite a different register from spoken English. For first drafts, use common verbs (“to be / have / get / find out”); then be more specific.
Create your Academic WordList. Each time you come across a scientific word write it out and search for the family of words. Make a list of such words.
Simple version: analyse - analysis - analytical – analytically
Full version:
analyse
analysed
analyser
analysers
analyses
analysing
analysis
analyst
analysts
analytic
analytical
analytically
analyze
analyzed
analyzes
analyzing
Besides the family of the word you may add word combinations. Below are the search results for «approach» in a dictionary. What do they mean?
Упражнение 1
Перефразируйте выражения. Приведите примеры, как можно их использовать, говоря о/ об (Вашем) исследовании.
1.softly-softly approach
2.the approach of something
3.stop-go approach/policies etc
4.adopt an approach/policy/attitude etc
5.cost-benefit analysis/study/approach
6.laissez-faire attitude/approach etc
7 take/treat/approach something lightly
Упражнение 2
Найдите и выпишите из словаря выражения с указанными словами. Придумайте примеры, которые иллюстрируют, как их можно использовать в предложении:
approach
assume
concept
interpret
research
experiment
study
Упражнение 3