Reduction is a phonetic process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of sounds in unstressed positions.

Reduction affects form words (articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and modal verbs, personal, possessive, reflexive, relative pronouns and the word ‘some’ meaning ‘indefinite quantity’. These words have two forms: strong and weak.

There are three degrees of reduction:

- Quantitative reduction (shortening of a long vowel)

e.g. he [hi: - hi – hi]

- Qualitative reduction (changing of the quality of a vowel0

e.g. can [ kæn – kәn]

- Zero reduction (omission of a vowel)

e.g. I’m [aim]

The following cases should be remembered as the traditional use of strong forms:

a. Prepositions have their strong forms in the sentence final position or when followed by an unstressed personal pronoun.

e.g. What are you looking at? [ æt ]

I’m listening to you. [tu:]

b. Auxiliary and modal verbs are in their strong forms at the end of a sentence or sense-group and in contracted negative forms. In both cases the verbs are stressed.

e.g. Are you free? – I am. [ æm]

I can’t come. [k α: nt]

c. The verb ‘to have’ in the meaning of ‘to possess’ is used in its full form whether stressed or unstressed. The verb ‘to do’ is not reduced when used for emphasis.

e.g. I have a brother. [h æ v]

Do tell me a bout it. [ du: ]

d. The demonstrative pronoun ‘that’ is never reduced while the conjunction ‘that’ is always weak.

e.g. I know that. [ ðæt]

I know that you are ill. [ ðәt ]

Exercise 36

Jane is talking about her pets. Write the text down and practise reading it, using short forms.

Exercise 37

In the conversation that follows, the words ‘a’ and ‘the’ are not there. Put in the missing articles. Comment on all the weak and strong form words. Practise reading the conversation.

‘a’ and ‘the’ are nearly always weak!

: Do you have children, Shirley?

: Yes, son and daughter.

: Oh that’s nice, what do they do?

: My daughter jenny’s music teacher, and Michael, my son, is at college – he wants to

be a pilot!

: Oh, lovely!

: Yes…

: Do they live at home?

: Michael lives with me, but Jenny lives in London – she’s married with two children.

: Oh! So you’re grandmother!

: Yes, she has girl and boy too – Rebecca and Thomas.

: Oh, lovely – how old are they?

: Girl’s seven and boy’s two – do you want to see photo?

: Oh yes… Ah… aren’t they beautiful!

Exercise 38.

Match the parts in A and B to make full sentences. Comment on weak form words.

a. I’m going out b. They’re waiting c. My daughter’s studying d. My brother’s going abroad e. We’re going to the airport f. She’s getting ready

1. to see the manager. 2. to buy a newspaper. 3. to go out with her boyfriend. 4. to meet some friends. 5. to work. 6. to become a doctor.

Exercise 39

Listen to the dialogue, write it down and practise reading it, paying attention to the weak form.

Exercise 40

Listen to the descriptions of some special days in Britain. Put them down and practise reading them using weak form prepositions.

‘Of’ links with the word before it!

Exercise 41

What weak form words can you hear in the following sentences? Put down the dialogues and practise reading them.

Exercise 42

Listen to the tape and complete the sentences below. Transcribe them and be prepared to comment on the weak form words.

a. ________ bank opens _________.

b. He goes _________ seven ________.

c. This office ________ half past two.

d. we get up _________ o’clock.

e. Her plane ______ two fifteen.

f. The programme _________ about _________ thirty.

g. The film _________ at half _________.

h. My train _______ about ________.

Exercise 43.

Complete the sentences below with suitable prepositions. Listen to the tape and check your answers. Practise reading the sentences.

a. I’d like a pot ___ hot tea ___ breakfast, lease.

b. Let’s meet ___ Waterloo station ___ eight.

c. Give it ___ Julie and say it’s ___ me.

d. We’ll be closed ___ Monday because ___ the strike.

e. Elvis went ___ Las Vegas ___ four months.

Which sentences goes with which stress pattern?

Exercise 44

Listen to the conversation. Fill in the missing prepositions and practise reading the conversation with a partner.

Boss: Hello. Can I speak ___ Miss Moneypenny?

Secretary: Speaking.

Boss: Hello, M here. I’m phoning ___ the Ritz.

I’m looking ___ James bond. We had a lunch

appointment ___ twelve. Is here there?

Secretary: I’m sorry, sir, but he’s gone ___ Budapest.

Boss: I was afraid ___ that. Where exactly?

Secretary: He’s staying ___ the Hotel Royal.

Boss: Why didn’t he listen ___ me? He’s just asking

___ trouble.

Secretary: He’s only staying there ___ a couple ___ days

Boss: All right. Contact him and tell him ___ me he’s

a damn fool. Oh, and you can tell him

I’m waiting ___ his call.

Secretary: Yes, sir.

Exercise 45

Listen to the short dialogues at a party and fill in the missing words. Are they weak or strong? Practise saying the dialogues with a partner.

1. How long are you here ___?

Only ___ another couple ___ days.

2. My brother’s working ___ Macdonald’s this summer.

Oh, what’s he working ___?

___ a cook!

3. Where’s the other half ___ that bottle ___ whiskey?

You left it ___ the bottom ___ the stairs.

4. Would you like ___ come back ___ my flat ___ a drink?

I’d love ___!

Exercise 46

A. Answer the questions using short answers. What form auxiliary verbs do you use each time?

B. Mark the auxiliary verbs in the fallowing sentences ‘W’ if they are weak and ‘S’ if they are strong. Practise saying the questions and the answers with the tape.

Exercise 47

Rewrite the following sentences using contractions where possible. Listen and check your answers. Repeat the sentences with the tape.

We use contractions in conversations and I informal writing. Here are some rules for contractions:

1/ There are no contractions in affirmative answers: Is he French? - Yes, he is.

2/ The only contraction with nouns and names is “’s” (from ‘is’ or ‘has’): Mary’s arrived. ( not: The children’ve arrived.)

3/ The only contraction with non-personal pronouns ( e.g. what, who, here, that, etc.) is “‘s”: Where’s the ball? ( not: Where’ve you been?)

4/ There are no “’s” contractions with wh-questions ending I the word ‘it’: What is it?

5/ The contracted form of ‘am I not’ is ‘Aren’t I’: Aren’t I going with you?

a. You should not eat fatty foods.

b. The planet will not survive if people are not more careful.

c. She cannot speak German very well.

d. You have not read it, have you?

e. When is your birthday?

f. There is a good film on TV tonight.

g. Jane would like to be an English teacher.

h. Her boyfriend has got a Volkswagen.

i. I am late, am I not?

j. It will be over 500 floors high.

k. What are your names?

l. Luckily the plane did not crash, and the passengers were not hurt.

m. Who is it?

n. I did not use to like vodka.

Exercise 48

Listen to the dialogue and fill in the correct verb forms (affirmative or negative): can, could, was, were. Practise saying the dialogue line by line paying attention to the pronunciation of these verbs.

: My mother’s parents, Thomas and Frida, _____ a strange couple. There ___ married nearly twenty years. They _____ very rich, but they _____ very happy.

: Why?

: Frida _____ English… she _____ speak English very well.

: Where _____ she from?

: Berlin… Germany.

: _____ Thomas speak German?

: Well, he _____ speak many languages, but he _____ speak German.

: That’s strange! And what about your mother? _____ she speak German?

: Well, she _____ understand it very well, but she _____ really speak it.

Exercise 49

Listen to the conversation between three friends. State where they say can or can’t in each case. Put the dialogue down and practise reading it.

If the stress and sound s are said incorrectly, it is often difficult to hear the difference between can and can’t in connected speech.

Exercise 50

Study the table below. Learn the weak forms of auxiliary verbs and their contractions, then practise saying them in the sentences that follow.

Do you [d u] or [d ә] They’re [ðeә] We’re [wiә] or [wә] You’re [juә] or [jә] be [bi] Being [biiŋ] been [bin] Was [wәz] wasn’t [ w znt]

Were [wә] Weren’t [w ε :nt] I’m [aim] or [ æm] I’ll [ail] or [ æl] We’ll [wil] Have [hәv] or [әv] Haven’t [hævnt] They’ve [ðeiv] or [ðev] We’ve [wiv]

a. Do you really like Beethoven?

b. You weren’t I when I called.

c. They’re leaving this Wednesday.

d. She’s just being difficult.

e. I was worried about you.

f. I’ve been waiting for you to phone.

g. We’re dealing with the problem.

h. I haven’t said a word to anyone.

i. I’m afraid we were too late.

j. I’ll have finished typing it by lunchtime.

k. They’ve never been happy together.

Listen to the sentences and write the missing words in the gaps. Practise saying the sentences with the tape, paying attention to the weak form verbs.

a. ___________________ here a lot?

b. They ____________________ us.

c. They ___________________ another argument.

d. The car _________________ at the moment.

e. This letter _______________ two months ago.

f. That ____________________ me all day.

g. We _____________________ to help..

h. We _____________________ anything yet.

i. I’m sure we ______________ just then.

j. I _______________________ home by eight o’clock.

k. They ___________________ a lot of problems lately.

l. We _____________________ for you at the entrance.

Exercise 51

Listen to the following sentences, write them down. Which of the auxiliary verbs here are weak and which are strong?

Exercise 52

Listen to the dialogue, practise reading it line by line with the tape first and then on your own. Be prepared to comment on the weak and strong forms of form-words in it.

A: Have you ever been to Ireland, Pete?

B: Yes, loads of times. My parents go over there every year, you see.

A: Do they? Why’s that then?

B: Oh, my Dad was born in Dublin.

A: Was he really? He doesn’t sound Irish at all?

B: No… well his family left when he was about ten. What about you? Have you ever been there?

A: Well, we were going to Dublin last summer and then there was that long ferry strike…

B: That’s right, there was.

A: Anyway we were hoping to go this year instead, but hotel prices have gone up so much…

B: Yes, I know they have, it’s terrible. I tell you what, shall I give you my cousin’s address? Perhaps you can stay with her for a few days?

A: Are you sure we can? It seems a bit cheeky…

B: No…

LINKING

In connected speech words are not separated from each other. To achieve this, the following rules should be observed:

1. A word ending in a consonant blends with the initial vowel of the next word, no glottal stop should be heard.

e.g. as a rule

2. The letter ‘r’ is sounded at the end of a word if the next word begins with a vowel sound. But there is no linking [r] between two words separated by a pause.

e.g. nearer and nearer

He paused there, and then spoke again.

3. Between the word final [i] and the initial vowel of the next word an extra [j] sound can be heard to link them.

e.g. the apple [ ðijæpl]

4. Between the final [u] and the initial vowel of the next word an extra [w] sound can be heard to link them.

e.g. go and do that [gәuwәndu:ðæt]

Mark the links in the following phrases and sentences:

a. free entrance

b. blue eyes

c. no understanding

d. The awful aunty is here in a new outfit.

e. The doctor advised me to eat only apples.

f. The author is an ugly individual who earns a lot.

g. A new Austin is too expensive for us to afford.

h. He and Hugh Appleby are thirty-eight years old.

Exercise 53

Look at this famous book, play and film names and mark the links. Repeat the names with the tape.

War and Peace

Out of Africa

Death on the Nile

Alice in Wonderland

The Wizard of Oz

Close Encounters of the Third Kind

A Clockwork Orange

Laurence of Arabia

Cat on a Hot Tin Roof

Kiss of the Spiderwoman

Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom

Venus and Adonis

First among Equals

Death of a Salesman.

Exercise 54

Put down the sentences you hear, work out their meanings and practise reading them.

Multi-word verbs are often difficult to understand because of linking!

Exercise 55

Listen and practice saying these London place names, paying attention to the linking.

THE WEST END

MARBLE ARCH

Gatwick Airport

THE CITY OF LONDON

Heathrow Airport

Westminster Abbey

The Royal Albert Hall

The Houses of Parliament

The Tower of London

Shaftsbury Avenue

The London Underground

The Bank of England

Exercise 56

Listen to the sentences and complete them, transcribe them and mark all the links. Practise reading them.

a. What a ______________!

b. It was an ____________.

c. The weather was ____________!

d. He got into their ____________.

e. She speaks ____________ and __________.

f. It was an ______________!

g. She lives in a __________.

h. I’ll phone for an _________!

Exercise 57

Listen and practise saying the names quickly in pairs.

Names ending in the sound [ә] are linked with an extra [r] sound. With names which already contain [r] the final [ә] is elided and the [r] and the linking [r] merge when speaking at speed.

e.g. Sarah and Sheila [ sεәrәnd ∫i:lә]

A. Maggie – Susie Cathy - Charlie Bobby - Billy Tommy - Lizzie Johnnie – Andy Linda – Hannah Laura – Sarah Sheila – Patricia Sandra – Amanda Romeo – Juliet Othello – Desdemona Horatio – Hamlet

B. Kennedy - Cleopatra Plato - John Lennon Franco - Charles Victoria - Kruschev Isabella - Mussolini Diana - Albert Mary - Minnie (Mouse) Yoko Ono - Aristotle Antony - Ferdinand Mickey - Joseph

Exercise 58

Put down the sentences you hear on the tape; practise reading them, inserting the extra [j] and [w] sounds to link the words, where possible.

Exercise 59

Complete these pairs of dialogues with ‘very’ or ‘too’. Listen to the tape and compare your answers. Practise reading the dialogues with a partner.

a/ i. Excuse me for asking, but how much did the rain ticket to Newcastle cost?

It was _______ expensive, about ₤60.

ii. Why didn’t you come here on the train?

It was ______ expensive, about ₤60.

b/ i. It seems quite safe in this area at night.

Actually it’s ______ unsafe.

ii. Why didn’t you travel up here i that old car of yours?

Actually, it’s ______ unsafe.

c/ i. How did you feel about things when you woke up this morning?

To be honest, I was still _______ annoyed.

ii. Why didn’t you come out for a drink with the boss last night?

To be honest, I was still ______ annoyed.

d/ i. Why didn’t Mary apply for that job, do you know?

I’m not sure, but I think she was ______ old.

ii. How old was her grandmother when she died?

I’m not sure, but I think she was ______ old.

Exercise 60

Listen to the tongue-twisters, pay attention to all the links. Practise until you can say them smoothly and quickly.

a. My aeroplane arrives in Australia at bout eight o’clock in the evening.

b. Uncle Alfie and auntie Elsie always go away at Easter.

c. Are you asking us to accept an offer of only eighty pounds?

d. Nicky and Laura are off to Italy and Austria again.

e. Bruno and Anna are arriving in an hour or so and they’re often early.

Exercise 61

Listen to the dialogue and mark the linking [r]s. Practise reading the dialogue with a partner.

M: Peter! Are you going anywhere over Easter this year?

P: Well, yes, as a matter of fact we are. We’re off on a tour of Italy for a week or two.

M: Mmm. That sounds really wonderful. Where exactly will you be going?

P: Oh, here and there. Rome’s more or less definite, but apart from that we’re open to suggestion.

M: Are you traveling by coach?

P: No, by car, actually.

M: Dear old Italy! When you’re in Rome you must remember to throw a coin over your shoulder

into the Trevi fountain.

P: Really? What for?

M: Well, if you do that, it means that, sooner or later, you’re sure to return.

Exercise 62.

Listen to the dialogue which is rather informal. Can you catch all the words? Try to put the dialogue down and read it at the same speed as it is on the tape.

ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is a phonetic process as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partly similar to the neighbouring sound.

Assimilation can affect different characteristics of a sound, and its types are numerous. Some of the most frequent types are:

1. Alveolar [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z] are replaced by their dental variants when immediately followed by the interdental [θ] or [ð].

e.g. tenth, on the desk

2. The sonorants [m], [n], [l], [w], [r], [j] are partly devoiced when preceded by the voiceless consonants.

e.g. rush – crush, got wet

3. Consonants followed by [w] become slightly rounded.

e.g. twin, swift

4. In a cluster of two plosives, when the positions of the organs of speech are the same for both consonants, the first plosive loses its plosion.

e.g. bookcase, that child

5. When the positions of the organs of speech are different, the first plosive has an incomplete plosion.

e.g. talked, good book

6. When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] the nasal plosion is produced.

e.g. shipmate, escape noisily

7. When a plosive is immediately followed by the sound [l] the lateral plosion is produced.

e.g. black, settle, it lasts

8. In rapid speech ‘do you’ often becomes [d u].

e.g. Do you know his name? [dZu nәu hiz neim]

Exercise 63

Listen to the phrases on the tape, put them down, work out their meanings, explain the difference in the way they sound.

Exercise 64

Listen and cross out the unpronounced plosive sounds in the following sentences, comment on all the other cases of assimilation there are in them.

a. She was wearing a deep purple evening dress.

b. They had dinner at eight o’clock.

c. We’ve got a flat tyre, I’m afraid.

d. She gave him a quick kiss.

e. You’re a big girl now dear.

f. He didn’t do the washing-up.

g. We had a really good time at Antonia’s.

h. What are my job prospects after the course?

i. Mmm! I love ripe bananas!

j. Give that ball a big kick!

k. They’ve got a lovely back garden.

Exercise 65

Listen to the dialogues and write in B’s answers. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the questions ‘Do you …?’

1. A: Do you know the time?

2. A: Do you have a light?

3. A: Do you speak English?

4. A: Do you understand?

5. A: Do you have milk?

6. A: What do you do?

Exercise 66

Listen to the conversation between Bob and Anna. Put it down and practise reading it with a partner. Pay attention to the pronunciation of ‘do you’ and ‘would you’ questions.

Exercise 67.

Listen to the conversation, write it down. Make up similar conversations with a partner.

Revision Exercise

Every other line in this poem is in transcription. Do the same to the first lines in each verse. Be prepared to comment on all the cases of reduction, linking and assimilation. Prepare model reading of the poem.

*Sean is said [∫O:n]

Flatearther

Cried Uncle Sean, ‘The earth is flat!

[ai riqli jxm kwait Suqr qv Dxt]

And just to prove I tell it true

[ail wO:k frqm hiq tq kxtmandH]

Somewhere the earth is bound to stop,

[Den Of Di jeG ail Suqli drOp]

He left at five and got as far

[qz dAblin bei jqn mikiz bR]

‘Twas five to twelve he staggered out,

[rOkiN qn rJliN O:l qbaut]