Coordinate clauses joined by adversative conjunctions.

Clauses joined by the conjunctions but and while are separated by a comma or a semicolon. A dash may also be found.

He still smoked, but he drank no more. (London)

Tom was a Whig, while Esmond was a Tory. (Thackeray)

Her own limits were the limits of her horizon; but limited minds can recognize

limitation only in others. (London)

He was driven out into the cold world, he must submit — but he forgave

them. (Twain)

Clauses joined by the conjunctive adverbs yet, whereas, still as a rule are separated by a semicolon. A comma is used but seldom.

It gave him exquisite delight to watch every movement and play of those lips as they enunciated the words she spoke; yet they were not ordinary lips such as all men and women had. (London)

Upon the other step was Mr. Jonas; whereas the youngest gentleman was deep in the booking-office among the black and red plackards. (Dickens)

§ 11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs are as a rule separated by a comma or a semicolon.

“Who?” asked Clyde, pretending an innocence he could not physically verify, for his cheeks and forehead flushed. (Dreiser)

Don’t approach me; for I hate you beyond measure. (Bennett)

Clauses joined by the conjunction so are separated by a comma.

It was clear that something had happened, so we eased up. (Jerome)

Occasionally we find a dash or a colon before the conjunctions for and so.

Aunt Polly asked him questions — for she wanted to trap him into damaging

revealments. (Twain)

Becky was gone to her Constantinople home to stay with her parents during

vacations — so there was no bright side to life anywhere. (Twain)

§ 12. As has been stated in Chapter XVII, § 6, a sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent clauses.

Direct speech is given in quotation marks. The clause containing direct speech is separated from the other coordinate clause, which introduces the direct speech, by a comma.

The lady said to her friend, “Why, Rawdon, it’s Captain Dobbin.”

(Thackeray)

“Come in and have your milk,” he said. (Galsworthy)

A colon is also possible.

Bosinney replied coolly: “The work is a remarkable one.” (Galsworthy)

“June’s not here,” said his father hastily: “went off to-day on a visit.”

(Galsworthy)

If the clause containing direct speech is interrogative or exclamatory, a note of interrogation or a note of exclamation is used; the clause is not separated from the other clause by a stop, if the clause containing direct speech precedes the other. If it follows the other clause, a comma or a semicolon is used.

“Where do you get your things?” he said in an aggravated voice. (Galsworthy)

“I’d no idea it was so good!” he said. (Galsworthy)

She sank down by his side and cried: “Oh, Phil! it’s all so horrid!”

(Galsworthy)

Then Soames asked: “When do you expect to have finished?” (Galsworthy)

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

To separate subordinate clauses from the principal clause the following rules on the use of stops are observed.

§ 13. Subject clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by any stop.

What he learned of farming in that week might have been balanced on the

point of a penknife and puffed off. (Galsworthy)

However, a comma is found if the subject clause is of some length and if a subordinate clause is attached to it.

What had saved him from becoming a cross between a lap dog and a little

prig, had been his father’s adoration of his mother. (Galsworthy)

§ 14. Predicative clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by any stop. A comma is often used when they are joined asyndetically.

Ruth’s point of view was that he was doing no more than was right. (London)

My opinion is, she’d come to me. (Weyman)

§ 15. Object clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a stop. If the object clause precedes the principal clause, a comma may or may not be used.

The silence was so long and deep that he looked up, wondering why the Padre

did not speak. (Voynich)

...and what Browning had done for her, Martin decided-he could do for Ruth.

(London)

Attributive clauses.

1. Restrictive relative attributive clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by stops.

You may be sure every smuggler in the Apennines will do for a man who was

in the Savigno revolt what he will not do for us. (Voynich)

2. Non-restrictive relative attributive clauses are as a rule separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Tom presented himself before Aunt Polly, who was sitting by an open

window. (Twain)

I turned hastily round, and found at my elbow a pretty little girl, who begged

to be directed to a certain street at a considerable distance. (Dickens)

3. Continuative attributive clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Oliver was frightened at the sight of so many gentlemen, which made him

tremble: and the beadle gave him another tap behind, which made him cry.

(Dickens)

4. Appositive attributive clauses, are never separated from the principal clause by a stop.

The thought that his adored daughter should learn of that old scandal hurt Ms

pride too much. (Galsworthy)

She paused with an uneasy sense that instead of defending Kath she was

providing ammunition against her. (Lindsay)

Adverbial clauses.

1. When an adverbial clause follows-the principal clause, no stop is generally used. When it precedes the principal clause, it is separated from it by a comma.

The solicitor addressed me as he descended the stair. (Ch. Bronte)

He sank into a silence so profound that Aunt Hester began to be afraid he had

fallen into a trance. (Galsworthy)

He drew the blanket over his head that he might not hear. (Voynich)

When Phyl called to see how Pearl was getting on, she found her still curled

up sulkily in her arm-chair. (Lindsay)

Though I had now extinguished my candle and was laid down in bed, I could

not sleep. (Ch. Bronte)

If any shareholder has any question to put, I shall be glad to answer it.

(Galsworthy)

2. An adverbial clause of result coming after the principal clause, which is usually the case, is often separated by a comma.

The thicket was as close as a brush; the ground very treacherous, so that we

often sank in the most terrifying manner. (Stevenson)

ADDITIONAL REMARKS

§ 18. If in a complex sentence there are two or more homogeneous clauses, they are separated from each other by a comma.

When dusk actually closed, and when Adele left me to go and play in the

nursery with Sophie, I did not keenly desire it. (Ch. Bronte)

§ 19. At the end of every kind of declarative non-exclamatory sentence — simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex — a full stop is used.

Young Jolyon poured out the tea. (Galsworthy)

All the life and expression had gone out of his face; it was like a waxen mask.

(Voynich)

They turned back towards the bridge over which the Cardinal’s carriage

would have to pass. (Voynich)

§ 20. At the end of a sentence expressing a question, real or rhetorical, a note of interrogation is used.

Do you recognize that letter? (Voynich)

Is this a dagger that I see before me? (Shakespeare)

A note of interrogation is used at the end of sentences containing questions even if the order of words is that of an affirmative sentence.

And he wants you to live on cocoa too? (Galsworthy)

You deny that it is in your writing? (Voynich)

§ 21. At the end of exclamatory sentences a note of exclamation is used.

It’s a lie! (Voynich)

What a beautiful voice that man has! (Voynich)

§ 22. To indicate a sudden stop in the thought a dash or two dashes are used.

Oh! how I wish — But what is the use of wishing? (Fowler)

“Oh, well,” he said, “it’s such a long time since — ” He faltered. He stopped.

(Mansfield)

It should be noted that the use of most stops largely depends on the will of the writer.