Position of adverbial modifiers.
An adverbial modifier hardly ever separates the direct object from the predicate. It stands either before the predicate or after the direct object.
Helen heard me patientlyto the end. (Ch. Bronte)
We could also very well say: “Helen patiently heard me to the end,” but no other position of the adverbial modifier is possible here, unless it is meant to be emphatic; in this case it is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
However, an adverbial modifier separates the direct object from its verb when the object has an attribute (see § 5).
He knew instinctively the principles of “pyramiding” and “kiting”. (Dreiser)
He could read English but he saw therean alien speech. (London)
1. An adverbial modifier of time is generally placed either atthe beginning or at the end of the sentence.
On Tuesday nightthe new laundrymen arrived, and the rest of the week was
spent breaking them into the routine. (London)
Probably we shall try tomorrow.(Heym)
Adverbial modifiers expressed by the adverbs now and then can be placed in nearly any position.
Tess thenremembered that there would have been time for this. (Hardy)
Indeed, anything untoward was nowsedulously kept from James
(Galsworthy)
We nowslowly ascended a drive and came upon the long front of a house.
(Ch. Bronte)
N o t e. — The hour is generally mentioned before a more general adverbial
modifier of time such as day, night, evening, morning.
At nine in the eveningBadly White... opened the door to the room and poked
his head in. (Maltг)
2. An adverbial modifier of place generally stands either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
Down in the mill yarda Bessemer furnace was blowing flame into the sky.
(Maltz)
Geodin led the guests into the parlour.(O. Henry)
Thereit was all spiritual. Hereit was all material and meanly material.
(London)
...a library was a most likely place for her, and he might see her there.
(London)
However, an adverbial modifier of place sometimes comes between the predicate and the prepositional object.
He emerged from the theatrewith the first of the crowd. (London)
Adverbial modifiers of place generally precede those of time and purpose:
I am going to the country to-morrow.
Well, they only kept up there about an hour but that was sure a long time.
(Maltz)
Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet for the first floor landing. (M.
Dickens)
3. The place of the adverbial modifier of frequency is more fixed than that of other adverbial modifiers which enjoy a certain freedom of position. As a rule they precede the predicate verb in a simple tense form but follow the verb to be and all the modal verbs. In a compound tense form they follow the first auxiliary.
No one ever loved me. (London)
Lily would complain that she alwaystold Jane everything she knew.
(Herbert)
She was alwayson the point of telling him the truth.
However, when they are emphasized they stand before the verb to be.
You were awfully good about being pushed up here, but then you alwaysare
good about the things that happen to you. (M. Dickens)
As for Charlie, he needed frequentlyto have a confidant. (S. Lewis)
Don’t go worrying about what may neverhappen.
He can neverleave out an irreligious finale. (Lindsay)
I’d just love to come, but Francis and I can’t everbe away together.
(Galsworthy)
Take your hands away, Huckleberry; what a mess you are always making.
(Twain)
She cared for Ailen more than she had evercared for any of her children. (M.
Dickens)
“Ineverheard of such a thing!” she exclaimed.
It will neverbe Frank! It can’t be! (Dreiser)
However, sometimes and generally may be placed either before or after the verb.
For he sometimesthought that, unless he proclaimed to the world what had
happened to him, he would never again feel quite in possession of his soul.
(Galsworthy)
And I got so lonely here sometimes. (Dreiser)
In interrogative sentences adverbial modifiers of frequency come immediately after the subject.
Did you everhave shoes like that? (Abrahams)
Does he oftencome to see you?
Adverbial modifiers of frequency sometimes occupy the first place. This position generally does not cause inversion.
Oftenhe had asked her to come and pass judgement on his junk.
(Galsworthy)
Occasionally a small band of people followed the preachers to their mission.
(Dreiser)
(For the emphatic position of the adverbial modifier never see § 4, 1b.)
4. The most frequent position of an adverbial modifier of manner is after the predicate if the verb is intransitive, and after the direct object if the verb is transitive.
“You needn’t worry about me,” Louise said stoutly. (M. Dickens)
Cokane shakes hands effusivelywith Sartorius. (Shaw)
An adverbial modifier of manner generally stands between the predicate-verb and the prepositional indirect object though it is also found after the object.
She leaned lightlyagainst his shoulder. (London)
Gwendolen... though I asked most distinctlyfor bread and butter, you have
given me cake. (Wilde)
Very often, however, an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb stands immediately before the predicate.
...Bessie was already gone, and had closed the nursery doorupon me. I slowly
descended. (Ch. Bronte)
Then it occurred to him that with this letter she was entering that very state
which he himself so earnestlydesired to quit. (Galsworthy)
In compound tense forms an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb generally comes after the last auxiliary.
These ladies were deferentiallyreceived by Miss Temple. (Ch. Bronte)
Mr. Ernest has been suddenlycalled back to town. (Wilde)
(For the emphatic position of adverbial modifiers of manner see § 4, 1d.)
5. Adverbial modifiers of degree always precede the predicate; if the verb is in a compound tense-form they follow the first auxiliary.
I entirelyagree with you.
He has quiteforgotten about the concert.
6. An adverbial modifier of degree expressed by the adverb enough generally follows the adjective it modifies, but may follow or precede a noun.
He is clever enoughbut very lazy.
When enough modifies a noun it may either follow or precede it.
I have time enoughto do it.
I have enoughtime to do it.
ADDITIONAL REMARKS
It should be borne in mind that whereas in Russian the word пожалуйста may occupy any position, in English the word please can either begin the sentence or finish it.
Thus in Russian we can say:
Пожалуйста, принесите мне книгу.
Принесите, пожалуйста, мне книгу.
Принесите мне, пожалуйста, книгу.
Принесите мне книгу, пожалуйста.
In English we can only say:
Please, bring me the book.
Bring me the book, please.
Chapter XVII
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 1. A compoundsentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clauseis part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.
In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
(a) syndetically, i. e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.).
The darkness was thinning, butthe street was still dimly lighted. (Lindsay)
He knew there were excuses for his father, yethe felt sick at heart. (Cronln)
(b) asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. (Collins)
The month was July, the morning fine, the glass-door stood ajar, through it
played a fresh breeze... (Ch. Bronte)
He uttered no other words of greeting; there was too strong a rush of mutual
consciousness. (Eliot)
§ 2. We can distinguish the following types of coordination:
1. Copulative coordination (соединительная связь), expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither ... nor, not only ... but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.
It was a nice little place andMr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it.
(Dreiser)
Mr. Home did not lift his eyes from his breakfast-plate for about two minutes,
nordid he speak. (Ch. Bronte)
Not onlydid he speak more correctly, buthe spoke more easily, and there
were many new words in his vocabulary. (London)
2. Disjunctive coordination(разделительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, and the conjunctive adverb otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses.
He knew it to be nonsense orit would have frightened him. (Galsworthy)
Don’t come near me with that look else I’ll knock you down. (Eliot)
...don’t fret, and don’t expect too much of him, or else he will feel you to be
troublesome... (Ch. Bronte)
...eitherour union must be consecrated and, sealed by marriage or it cannot
exist. (Ch. Bronte)
A painter has to be forbidding, Dad, otherwise people would think he was
cadging. (Galsworthy)
3. Adversative coordination(противительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions but, while,1 whereas and the conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, still, yet. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.
1 The conjunction while is not always coordinating. It may be a subordinating conjunction introducing adverbial clauses of time.
The room was dark, butthe street was lighter because of its lamps. (Dickens)
He had a glass eye which remained stationary, whilethe other eye looked at
Reinhardt. (Heym)
The old school-room was now a sitting room... whereasone of the old
nurseries was now the modern school-room. (Trollope)
I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yetI wept. (Ch. Bronte)
4. Causative-consecutive coordination (причинно-следственная связь) expressed by the conjunctions for, so and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence.
For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly introduce coordinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.2
2 Cause, consequence and result may also be expressed by subordinate clauses, introduced by subordinating conjunctions.
There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, forhe was strangely grave
and looked ill. (Dickens)
After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, sotalk was easy and
happy between them. (Priestley)
Hers (Lillian’s) was not a soul that ever loved passionately, henceshe could
not suffer passionately. (Dreiser)
N o t e. — There are cases when the conjunction for expresses relations
approaching those of subordination, i. e. when it introduces a clause showing
the reason of the action expressed in the preceding clause. In these cases the
conjunction for is very close in meaning to the conjunction because.
She (Lillian) was not helpless, forshe had money of her own. (Dreiser)
But even here for is not a subordinating conjunction, as the connection between the clause it introduces and the preceding clause is loose: a certain fact is stated and then, as it were on second thought, another, statement with a causal meaning is added.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 3. A complexsentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
N о t e. — This definition is true, however, only in a general sense. In an exact
sense there is often no principal clause; this is the case with complex
sentences containing a subject clause or a predicative clause.
(For a detailed treatment of this phenomenon see § 4, 5.)
Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:
1. Syndetically, i. e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.
There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.
More and more, she became convinced thatsome misfortune had overtaken
Paul. (Cronin) (CONJUNCTION)
All thathe had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning.
(Cronin) (CONNECTIVE)
2. Asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or connective.
I wish you had come earlier. (Heym)
Circumstances try the metal a man is really made of. (Collins)
A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause.
His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. (Cronin)
As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together. (Dickens)
It was dull and dreary enough, when the long summer evening closed in, on that Saturday night. (Collins)
A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other.
They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the
moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out.
(Collins)
What Mr. Pancks knew about the Dorrit family, what more he really wanted
to find out, and why he should trouble his busy head about them at all, were
questions that often perplexed him. (Dickens)
A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination.
He never asked why Erik was giving up academic work. (Wilson)
I don’t mind making the admission... that there are certain forms of so-called
humor, or, at least, fun,which I am quite unable to appreciate. (Leacock)
I think I have noticedthat they have an inconsistent way of speaking about
her,as if she had made some great self-interested success in marrying Mr.
Gowan... (Dickens)
According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses.
§ 4. Subject clauses perform the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.
What I want to do is to save us both. (Dreiser)
If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called introductory it is used in the principal clause.
Itwas always possible that they might encounter some one. (Dreiser)
N o t e. — There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type,
according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the subordinate
clause is a predicative clause.
Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way’s;
(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.
It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. (Heym)
Whether she was determined to bring matters to a crisis, or whether she was
prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff, is more than I can tell.
(Collins)
(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).
What was done could not be undone. (Hardy)
Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt... (Eliot)
It’s a grand thing when you see the working class in action. (Lindsay)
(c) asyndetically.
It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her. (Eliot)
Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.
Who her mother was, and how she came to die in that forlorn-ness, were
questions that often pressed on Eppie’s mind. (Eliot)
It was plain, pitiably plain, that he was aware of his own defect of memory,
and that he was bent on hiding it from the observation of his friends. (Collins)
N o t e. — Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences
with an emphatic construction; however, in meaning they are equivalent to
simple sentences.
It was his uncle who spoke first. (Priestley)
It was there that the offensive was to begin. (Hemingway)
It was very seldom that I uttered more than monosyllables in Dr. John’s
presence. (Ch. Bronte)
It was not till she was quite close that he could believe her to be Tess. (Hardy)
§ 5. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i. e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.
Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:
(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if.
Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. (Leacock)
The thing to be settle on now is whether anything can be done to save him.
(Dreiser)
It was as if these men and women had matured. (Heym)
It seems as if all these years I’ve been living under false pretences. (Cronin)
I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. (Eliot)
(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).
But this time, just about sunset, was always what I loved best. (Eliot)
The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. (Dreiser)
That was why you were not one bit frightened. (Eliot)
(c) asyndetically.
Another thing... was they had nurse Andrews staying on with them that week.
(Mansfield)
As a rule predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.
But the chief reason is, that Mirah will desire to watch over you, and that you
ought to give her the guardianship of a brother’s presence. (Eliot)
N o t e. — In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause
the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.
What we want to know is what the French are going to do now. (Greene)
§ 6. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause.
I don’t know what you are talking about. (Gow and D’Ussean)
An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.
I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had
heard. (Leacock)
I ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry to get back to town.
(Collins)
Mr. Bruff folded up the will, and then looked my way apparently wondering
whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt. (Collins)
Soames averted his eyes and became conscious that Winifred and he were
alone. (Galsworthy)
They were not sure what the morrow would bring forth. (Dreiser)
The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedding. (Trollope)
She was aware that someone else was there. (Eliot)
Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:
(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.
You know quite well, Ariadne, that I have not an ounce of pettishness in my
disposition. (Shaw)
Jane... wondered if Brian and Margaret were really suited for one another.
(Lindsay)
Time will show whether I am right or wrong. (Collins)
(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).
I’ll do just what I say. (Dreiser)
I half rose, and advanced my head to see how she was occupied. (Ch. Bronte)
He wondered why he should look back... (Wilson)
I don’t know where he developed his prose style, probably in the best of
schools, the open air. (Nichols)
(c) asyndetically.
He said there was nothing much the matter with me. (Maxwell)
An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.
I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose. (Eliot)
I found it hard to keep my mind on what the colonel was saying. (Greene)
An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it.
I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean. (Trollope)
As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.
What I used not to like, I long for now. (Eliot)
What happened then I do not know. (Conan Doyle)
If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.
I can’t tell you what tricks they performed, or how they did it. (Collins)
N o t e. — A sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent,
clauses.
“I don’t deserve to be mocked at,” she said in a stifled voice. (Lindsay)
“Well,” I thought, “at any rate, judging by the smell, the food must be good.”
(Mansfield)
§ 7. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositiveones.
Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.
The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to
the senses. (Conrad) (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)
The fortunate fact that the rector’s letter did not require an immediate answer
would give him time to consider. (Hardy) (ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE
CLAUSE)
Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically — by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses only syndetically — by means of conjunctions.
§ 8. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.
1. An attributive relative restrictiveclause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma, from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:
(a) relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as1 );
(b) relative adverbs (where, when);
(c) asyndetically.
1 As introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.
You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in
simple things. (Maugham)
...but there is no private life which has not been determined by a wider, public
life. (Eliot)
All that could be done had been done. (Dreiser)
He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers sing in Algeria.
(Hichens)
And he is now come to that stage of life when a man like him should enter
into public affairs. (Eliot)
They spoke no more all the way back to the lodging where Fanny and her
uncle lived. (Dickens)
There was simply nothing else he could do. (Coppard)
I think my father is the best man I have ever known. (Shaw)
2. An attributive relative non-restrictiveclause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.
Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of:
(a) relative pronouns (who, which);
(b) relative adverbs (where, when).
Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool. (Cronin)
She uttered a wild scream, which in its heart-rending intensity seemed to echo
for miles. (Hardy)
He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one.
(Cronin)
The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an attributive relative non-restrictive clause.
He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve.
(Dreiser)
A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continuativeclause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.
A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which, rendered in Russian by the pronoun что.
Mr. Manston was not indoors, which was a relief to her. (Hardy)
But to-day... he had slept only in snatches, which was worse than not sleeping
at all. (Cronin)
For this purpose they probably lowered the bridge, which can be done quite
noiselessly. (Conan Doyle)
N o t e. — The connection between the attributive continuative clause and the
principal clause is so loose that it is doubtful whether we have here a
subordinate or a coordinate clause; it may be considered a borderline case
between subordination and coordination.