Ways of expressing the subject.

The subject can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by:

1. A noun in the common case.

The sulky waiter brought my tea. (Du Maurier)

Marcellus slowly turned his head. (Douglas)

N o t e. — Occasionally a noun in the possessive case is used as the subject of

the sentence.

Mrs. Gummidge’s was a fretful disposition. (Dickens)

Oh, my dear Richard, Ada’s is a noble heart. (Dickens)

2. A pronoun — personal, demonstrative, defining, indefinite, negative, possessive, interrogative.

After about an hour I heard Montgomery shouting my name. Thatset me

thinking of my plan of action. (Wells)

Allwere clad in the same soft, and yet strong silky material. (Wells)

Everyone was silent for a minute. (Wells)

Nothing was said on either side for a minute or two afterwards. (Dickens)

Theirs is not a very comfortable lodging... (Dickens)

Who tore this book? (Twain)

The subject is often expressed by the indefinite pronoun one or the personal pronouns they, you, we, which refer not to any particular person or persons but to people in general.

These sentences generally correspond to the same kind of sentences in Russian, but sometimes they are rendered by impersonal sentences, as will be seen in the examples given below.

Yes, muttered Jon, life’s beastly short. One wants to live forever.

(Galsworthy)

Да, пробормотал Джон, жизнь чертовски коротка. Хочется жить вечно.

A day is like a page in a book, one cannot read it without commas and

periods. (Heym)

День напоминает страницу книги, ее нельзя читать без запятых и точек.

They say he’s clever — they all think they’re clever. (Galsworthy)

Говорят, что он умный — все думают, что они умные.

Howard, you introduce every statement with “they say”. I want to know who

is “they”. (Gow and D’Usseau)

Говард, ты каждое предложение начинаешь с «говорят». Я хочу знать,

кто говорит.

N o t e. — They is used when the speaker is excluded, one when the speaker is

included.

There are some things you can’t talk to anyone about. (Voynich)

Есть вещи, о которых никому не расскажешь.

It was good to be alive. Say what youlike youcouldn’t beat it. (Galsworthy)

Хорошо жить на свете. Что ни говори, а этого нельзя отрицать.

Every pleasure is transitory. We can’t eat long. If we indulge in harmless

fluids we get the dropsy, if in exciting liquids we get drunk. When I say “we”,

my dear, I mean mankind in general. (Dickens)

Всякое удовольствие преходяще. Нельзя есть долго. Если мы

злоупотребляем безвредными напитками, мы заболеваем водянкой, если

мы злоупотребляем спиртными напитками, мы пьянеем. Когда я говорю

«мы», мой дорогой, я имею в виду человечество в целом.

3. A substantivized adjective or participle.

The Privileged have seen that charming and instructive sight. (Galsworthy)

The wounded were taken good care of.

4. A numeral (cardinal or ordinal).

Of course, the two were quite unable to do anything. (Wells)

The first and fourth stood beside him in the water. (Wells)

5. An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction.

To liveis to work.

To be a rich man,Lieutenant, is not always roses and beauty. (Heym)

For him to come was impossible.

6. A gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction.

Lying doesn’t go well with me. (Heym)

Winning the war is what counts. (Heym)

Annette’s being French might upset him a little. (Galsworthy)

7. Any part of speech used as a quotation.

On is a preposition.

No is his usual reply to any request.

8. A group of words which is one part of the sentence, i. e. a syntactically indivisible group.

Yet at this very time their friend and defender is darkly groping towards the

solution. (Fox)

Here the subject represents one person.

The needle and thread is lost.

Here the needle and the thread are treated as one thing.

This is not to be confused with homogeneous subjects where two persons or things are meant and consequently the predicate is in the plural.

Mr. Pickwick alone was silent and reserved. Doubtand distrustwere

exhibited in his countenance. (Dickens)

There are other kinds of syntactic units.

There were a number of carved high back chairs.(Dreiser)

There’s a lot of truthin that, of course. (London)

9. A quotation group.

“I shan’t be able to give you very much,” he had said. “Perhaps thiswhat’s-his-namewill provide the cocoa.” (Galsworthy)

N o t e. — There are sentences where the subject is. introduced by the

construction there is, e. g. There is nothing on the table. In this case nothing is

the subject and there is part of the predicate.

§ 7. It as the subject of the sentence.

When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence it may represent a living being or a thing: then it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it does not represent any living being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function: then it is a formal subject.

A. When it is a notional subject the pronoun it has the following meanings:

1. It stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea — the personal it.

The door opened. It was opened by a young girl of thirteen or fourteen.

(Dickens)

If this is a liberty, it isn’t going to mean a thing. (Heym)

2. It points out some person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning — the demonstrative it.

Itis John.

It was a large room with a great window. (Dickens)

Dick came home late, it provoked his father. (Lindsay)

In the last two cases it is close to this and is usually translated into Russian by это.

B. Sometimes the pronoun it is a formal subject, i, e. it does not represent any person or thing.

Here we must distinguish:

(1) the impersonal it; (2) the introductory or anticipatory it; (3) the emphatic it.

1. The impersonal it is used:

(a) to denote natural phenomena (such as the state of the weather, etc.) or that which characterizes the environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb denoting the state, of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as predicative.

It often rains in autumn.

It is cold in winter.

It is stuffy in here.

It is delightfully quiet in the night.

N o t e. — The state of the weather can also be expressed by sentences in

which the subject denoting the state of things is introduced by the construction

there is. In such sentences the noun introduced by the construction there is is

the subject.

There was aheavy frostlast night.

There was afine rainfalling over the trees, the flowers, and the people sitting on the benches in the garden.

(b) to denote time and distance.

It is five minutes past six.

It is morning already.

How far is it from your office to the bank? (Galsworthy)

It is a long way to the station.

N o t e. — Sentences with the impersonal it as subject very often correspond

to Russian impersonal one-member sentences.

It is late.	Поздно.
It is freezing.	Морозит.
It is cold.	Холодно.
It is hot.	Жарко.

The following sentences, however, correspond to Russian two-member personal sentences:

It is raining.	Идет дождь.
It is snowing.	Идет снег.
It is hailing.	Идет град.

2. The introductoryor anticipatory it introduces the real subject.

It’s no use disguising facts.

It was curious to observe that child.

N o t e. — Some grammarians treat this it as the real subject and the rest of

the sentence as the predicate.

3. The emphatic it is used for emphasis.

It was Winifred who went up to him. (Galsworthy)

Itwas he who had brought back George to Amelia. (Thackeray)

THE PREDICATE

§ 8. The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing¹ denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent upon the subject.

¹ The word thing is used in a broad sense.

N o t e. — This definition does not cover sentences with the formal it as

subject. In these sentences the predicate expresses the state of weather, time,

or distance, and the subject only makes the sentence structurally complete.

As a rule the predicate contains a finite verb which may express tense, mood, voice, aspect, and sometimes person and number. According to the structure and the meaning of the predicate we distinguish two main types: the simple predicate arid the compound predicate.

The simple predicate.

The simple predicate is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form.

It generally denotes an action: sometimes, however, it denotes a state which is represented as an action.

Erik arrived at the lab next morning full of suppressed excitement. (Wilson)

And so, after all, the Padre had been thinking of letting him escape.

(Voynich)

Mr. Rivarez, I have been looking for you everywhere. (Voynich)

When Mary was brought in he gave her the local anaesthesia. (Cronin)

§ 10. There is a special kind of predicate expressed by a phraseological unit, such as to get rid, to take care, to pay attention, to lose sight, to have a wash, to give a push, etc.¹

¹ There is a great difference of opinion as to the nature of this predicate. Most Soviet grammarians treat it as a subdivision of the simple predicate (Л. П. Винокурова; В. Н. Жигадло, И. П. Иванова, Л. Л. Иофик; М. А. Ганшина и Н. М. Василевская), because it expresses one idea and its two components form an indivisible unit.

There is another view according to which it is a subdivision of the compound predicate. Some English grammarians call it a ‘group-verb predicate’.

When we clear the forests we get rid of such inconveniences. (Heym)

I went to the bathroom and had a good wash for it had been a dusty journey.

(Du Maurier)

The characteristic feature of this predicate is that the first component, i. e. the finite verb, has lost its concrete meaning to a great extent and forms one unit with the noun, consequently the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb. This can also be easily proved by the impossibility of putting a question to the second component.

C o m p a r e :

My friend gave me an interesting book to read.

The man gave a violent start.

Whereas in the first case we can easily put a question to the object (e. g. What did your friend give you?), in the second case this is impossible.

We shall treat this kind of predicate as a subdivision of the simple predicate. For the sake of convenience we shall call it a phraseological predicate.

We distinguish two types of the phraseological predicate.

1. Word combinations of the following type: to have a smoke, to have a swim, to have a run, to give a laugh, to give a push, to take a look, to make a move, etc. These combinations consist of a finite verb which has to a great extent lost its concrete meaning and a noun formed from a verb and mostly used with the indefinite article.

This predicate denotes a momentaneous action. In Russian this shade of meaning is rendered by different prefixes and suffixes which express, a momentaneous action.

He had a smoke.	Он покурил.
He gave a push.	Он толкнул.
He gave a start.	Он вздрогнул.
He had a wash.	Он вымылся, помылся.
He gave a cry	Он вскрикнул.

This type of phraseological predicate is characteristic of colloquial speech.

Every now and then she gave a half-glance at the people on the pavement.

(Lindsay)

She gave an unkind throaty laugh. (Lindsay)

Troy said, “First of all, sergeant, have a drink.” (Heym)

He started, made a short run and stopped and looked over his shoulder.

(Dickens)

2. Word combinations of the following type: to get rid, to get hold, to make use, to take care, to lose sight, to make fun, to pay attention, to make up one’s mind, to change one’s mind, to take part, etc.

The second component of these combinations is in most cases an abstract noun used without any article.

That’s more than twenty years ago. She has never made use of her power or

caused me a moment’s uneasiness. (Shaw)

You were making fun of mother just now. (Shaw)

Then he caught his breath, suddenly reminded of something else. (Wescott)

She made a gesture of dismissal and then suddenly changed her mind.

(Wescott)

It is better that you do not know where 1 live. I will get in touchwith you.

(Wilson)

The compound predicate.

As can be seen from the term itself the compound predicate consists of two parts: (a) a finite verb and (b) some other part of speech: a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verbal (a participle, a gerund, an infinitive), etc. The second component is the significant part of the predicate.

The first part expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood and voice; besides it has a certain lexical meaning of its own. The compound predicate may be nominal or verbal.