Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.

There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:

1. The verbs to accord, to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes on to the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.

He was granteda ten days’ leave.

Has he been, shownthe documents?

The patient was prescribeda strict diet.

He was ordereda change of scene.

We were toldto wait.

N o t e. — These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the

object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book,

He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to

him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was

given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which

occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the

person is emphasized.

2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to alludeto, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу вверх), to provide for, to put up at (остановиться), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).

At last an agreement was arrivedat.

Her strange behaviour waslargely commented upon.

Hecan be depended uponto keep strict silence.

This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must be put up with.

The article isoften referred to.

Steerforth was looked up toby all the boys.

The composite verb to do away with the preposition with can be used in the Passive Voice.

In our country illiteracy was done away withmany years ago.

N o t e. — To send for can be used only in connection with people.

The doctor was sent for.

The secretary will be sent for.

‘Послать за лекарством (книгой)’ should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.

3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with (придираться, находить недостатки), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make fun of, to make use of (использовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of.

The poor child wasalways being found fault with.

Soon the boat was lost sight of.

He was exceedingly absent-minded and wasalways made funof.

His remarks were taken no notice of.

The discussion was put an endto by his sudden arrival.

4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.

The bed was not slept in.

The room is not lived in.

5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch.

These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.

She wasgreatly affectedby the scene.

The report was followedby a discussion.

Walter Scott’s poetry wasstrongly influencedby the popular ballads.

Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенно-личные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned. In the latter case either the Active Voice is used, which occurs rather seldom, or the Passive Voice (consisting of the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога).

Не was grantedten days’ leave.

Ему далидесятидневный отпуск.

At last an agreement was arrivedat.

Наконец пришлик соглашению.

The bed was not sleptin.

В постели не спали.

The poor child was always being found fault with.

К бедному ребенку всегда придирались.

Steerforth was looked up toby all the boys.

Все мальчики смотрелина Стирфорта снизу вверх.

§ 6. The verb to be +Participle II.

The combination to be + Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link’ verb and a predicative.

As the director was ill, the documents were signedby his assistant. (Were

signed denotes an action.)

When I came, the papers were signedand lay on the secretary’s table. (Were

signed denotes a state.)

The compound nominal predicate expressed by the verb to be and Participle II can be translated only by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb быть is notused.

The statue is broken.

Статуя разбита.

When I came, the papers were signedand lay on the secretary’s table.

Когда я пришел, документы были подписаныи лежали на столе у

секретаря.

The use of tenses is closely connected with these meanings of the combination to be +Participle II.

When I came up to the gate, it wasalready locked.

Когда я подошел к воротам, они уже были заперты.

(The predicate indicates the state of the gate at a given moment.)

When I came up to the gate, it hadalready been locked.

Когда я подошел к воротам, их уже заперли.

(The predicate indicates an action completed before a definite moment in the past.)

Don’t try to open the gate. It is locked. (state)

He пытайтесь открыть ворота. Они заперты.

Ithasjust been locked. (action)

Их только что заперли.

It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be + Participle II as a simple predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.

1. We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) inthe following cases:

(a) when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).

They werethus introduced by Holly.(Galsworthy)

(b) when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.

Pravda is published in Moscow.

Good books are quickly sold.

The documents were signed a few minutes ago.

(c) when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.

Some efforts wereeven then being madeto cut this portion of the wreck

away. (Dickens)

Ever since that, the cannon business hasalways been leftto an adopted

foundling named Andrew Undershaft. (Shaw)

2. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:

(a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional verb admits of the Continuous form.

Why don’t you go and take the documents? They are ready. They have been

typedthese two hours.

Документы готовы. Уже два часа как они напечатаны.

Our things had been packedfor two hours and we were impatiently pacing

up and down the room when at last we heard the sound of wheels.

Вещи уже два часа как были упакованы,и мы в нетерпении ходили

взад и вперед по комнате, когда наконец услышали стук колес.

(b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind. In this case the predicate is compound even if there is an object introduced by the preposition by. This object does not denote the doer of an action but the cause of the state.

He was frightenedby the remark.

He was oppressedby a sense of loneliness.

When these criteria cannot be applied the context itself helps to decide whether the predicate is a simple or a compound nominal one.

MODAL VERBS

§ 1. Modal verbsare used to show the speaker’s attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive, i. e. they show that the action indicated by the infinitive is considered as possible, impossible, probable, improbable, obligatory, necessary, advisable, doubtful or uncertain, etc. The modal verbs are: can (could), may (might), must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare. The modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have+ Infinitive also belong here.

Modal verbs are called defective because all of them (except dare and need) lack verbals and analytical forms (i. e. compound tenses, analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Passive Voice). Besides they do not take ‑s in the third person singular. They also have the following peculiarities:

(1) All of them (except ought and sometimes dare and need) are followed by the infinitive without the particle to.

(2) All of them (except dare and need) form the negative and the interrogative form without the auxiliary do.

(3) All the modal verbs have two negative forms — a full one and a contracted one:

should not — shouldn’t

may not — mayn’t

must not — mustn’t

need not — needn’t

dare not — daren’t

Note the peculiar contracted form of some modal verbs:

cannot — can’t [kRnt]

shall not — shan’t [SRnt]

will not — won’t [wqunt]

§ 2. Can.

The verb can has two forms: can for the Present Tens and could for the Past Tense; the expression to be able which has the same meaning can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb can.

“I can’texplain it,” said Therese. “I can’texplain anything I did today.”

(Heym)

He jumped as high as ever he could.(Galsworthy)

How weakened she was Ihad not been ableto imagine until I saw her at the

railway station in Chinkiatig. (Buck)

Can expresses ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment.

1. Physical or mental ability.

Cousin Val can’twalk much, you know, but he canride perfectly. He’s going

to show me the gallops. (Galsworthy)

I don’t know what Captain Loomis was doing there, but you canguess — it

was about Thorpe. (Heym)

In this meaning it can be used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

2. Possibility.

(a) due to circumstances:

Icouldnot go to the theatre yesterday because I was busy.

“CanI have a cup of tea, Miss?” she asked. But the waitress went on doing

her hair. “Oh,” she sang, “we’re not open yet.” (Mansfield)

(Here the speaker does not ask the waitress’s permission to have a cup of tea

but she merely wants to know whether the place is open and whether she can

have a cup of tea.)

You canhave the book when I have finished it.

“CanI see him?” Yates asked, not very hopefully. “I’m sorry, no,” the voice

was hesitant. “We don’t want him disturbed.” (Heym)

CanI have my photo taken?

In the last three sentences can comes close to may expressing permission, but it does not so much indicate possibility depending upon the will of the person addressed (which is the essence of permission) as possibility depending on circumstances.

“Well, I’ll just wait a moment, if I may.”“You can’twait in the waiting-

room, Miss. I haven’t done it yet.” (Mansfield)

(b) due to the existing laws:

The more she studied, the less sure she became, till idly turning the pages, she

came to Scotland. People couldbe married there without any of this nonsense.

(Galsworthy)

Every Soviet citizen canget medical treatment free of charge. You cannot

play football in the street (i. e. you have no right).

Can expressing possibility is used with the Indefinite Infinitive only.

N o t e. — Could is often used in polite requests.

Could you give us a consultation tomorrow?

3. Incredulity, doubt, astonishment (they are closely connected).

In these meanings can is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in interrogative and negative sentences, though astonishment is expressed only in interrogative sentences.

No wonder her father had hidden that photograph... But couldhe hate Jon’s

mother and yet keep her photograph? (Galsworthy)

He удивительно, что ее отец спрятал эту фотографию... Но неужели он

мог ненавидеть мать Джона и все-таки хранить ее фотографию?

“That is not true!” exclaimed Linton, rising in agitation. “It cannotbe; it is

incredible, it cannotbe.” (E. Bronte)

«Это неправда, — воскликнул Линтон, вскакивая в волнении. — Не

может этого быть, это невероятно, не может этого быть».

Canshe be waiting for us?

Может ли быть, что она нас ждет?

She cannotbe waiting for us.

He может быть, чтобы она нас ждала. Неужели она нас ждет?

Can (could)she have said that?

Да неужели она это сказала?

There couldnot have been such relentless unforgiveness. (Galsworthy)

He может быть, чтобы человек мог так жестоко не прощать.

“Oh!” cried Fleur. “You couldnot have done it.” (Galsworthy)

«О, — вскричала Флер, — не может быть, чтобы вы это сделали».

Canshe have been waiting for us all the time?

Может ли быть, что она нас все это время ждет?

She cannothave been waiting for us all the time.

He может быть, что она нас все это время ждет.

Confusion came on Jon’s spirit. How couldshe say such things, just as they

were going to part? (Galsworthy)

Джон был озадачен.. Как она может говорить так в тот момент, когда

они собираются расстаться?

What couldshe have seen in that fellow Bosinney to send her mad?

(Galsworthy)

Что же она нашла в этом Босини, чтобы так сходить с ума по нем?

B r e t t. They saw us. I hope they didn’t recognize us.

G e n e v r a. The car was going too fast. They couldn’thave seen us. (Gow

and D’Usseau)

In the last two examples we can easily replace could by can without any change of meaning.

Could with the Perfect Infinitive has almost the same meaning as can with the Perfect Infinitive, only the negation is not so categoric as with can.

If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is mostly used. Other forms of the Infinitive are hardly ever used.

N o t e. — The Russian negative-interrogative sentences of the type

‘Неужели она не читала эту книгу?’ are rendered in English by complex

sentences:

Canit be that she has not read this book?

§ 3. May.

The verb may has two forms: may for the Present Tense and might for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb may.

“MayI come along?” asked Karen. (Heym)

Jolyor thought he mightnot have the chance of saying it after. (Galsworthy)

You are to stay in bed until you are allowedto get up. (Du Maurier)

May expresses permission, uncertainty, possibility, reproach.

1. Permission.

“MayI use your phone?” (Heym)

At any rate she murmured something to the effect that he mightstay if he

wished. (Hardy)

As has been mentioned (see § 2), can also often expresses permission but of a different kind: e. g. You maytake the book means that the speaker gives the permission; You cantake the book means that there are no conditions that prevent the person from taking the book.

May expressing permission is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive. Here we must observe the difference in the expression of permission and prohibition.

Whereas the former is always expressed by may, the latter has other ways of expression besides may not. Very often the negative answer to the question containing a request for permission is don’t or must not.

MayI read the letter?

No, don’t,please.

Don’t is less strict than may not, it is rather asking somebody not to do something than actually prohibiting something, which is expressed by may not.

Must not means that it is not the person who prohibits the action, but that there are facts, rules, or circumstances prohibiting it.

You must not smoke so much.

(For the difference between can and may in this meaning see § 2, 2.)

2. Uncertainty as to the fulfilment of an action, state or occurrence, supposition implying doubt.

“You maythink you’re very old,” he said, “but you strike me as extremely

young.” (Galsworthy)

«Может быть, вы думаете, что вы очень старая, — сказал он, — но мне

вы кажетесь совсем молодой».

She was and remains a riddle to me. She mayand she may notprove to be a

riddle to you. (Dreiser)

Она была и остается загадкой для меня. Может быть, она окажется

загадкой и для вас, а может быть, и нет.

Not which follows may expressing uncertainty is always strongly stressed.

As is seen from the above examples this meaning of may is rendered in Russian by может быть, возможно.

Sometimes when Mr. de Winter is away, and you feel lonely, you mightlike

to come up to these rooms and sit here. (Du Maurlier)

Иногда, когда мистер де Винтер уедет и вы почувствуете себя одинокой,

вам, может быть, захочется прийти посидеть в этих комнатах.

The last example shows that might denoting uncertainty has no temporal meaning, i. e. it does not express uncertainty referring to the past. Practically speaking there is hardly any difference between may and might in this meaning.

Sometimes might expresses greater reserve or uncertainty on the part of the speaker than may.

Might instead of may is often used because of the sequence of tenses.

That was like her — she had no foresight. Still — who knew? — she might

be right. (Galsworthy)

Это похоже на нее — она не умела смотреть вперед. Все же — кто знает?

— может быть, она и права.

Mrs. Page reflected that though Andrew looked hungry he might notbe hard

to feed. (Cronin)

Миссис Пейдж подумала, что хотя у Эндрю голодный вид, его, может

быть, и не трудно будет прокормить.

May denoting uncertainty is used with all the forms of the infinitive.

A Forsyte mightperhaps still be living in that house, to guard it jealously.

(Galsworthy)

It was then that his voice grew tired and his speech impeded. The knowledge

that he had entirely lost touch with his audience may have beenthe cause.

(Greene)

Именно тогда в голосе его послышалось утомление и речь его стала

прерывистой. Быть может, мысль, что он совершенно потерял контакт с

аудиторией, была этому причиной.

How long the silence lasted the Gadfly could not tell; it might have beenan

instant, or an eternity. (Voynich)

For all I knew, she may have been waiting for hours.

When uncertainty is expressed the time of the action is indicated by the form of the infinitive and not by the form of the modal verb, as both may and might can refer to the present or to the past in accordance with the form of the infinitive. If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is used.

3. Possibility due to circumstances.

May is used in this sense only in affirmative sentences. Can is also possible in this meaning.

In this museum you may see some interesting things.

You maysee him every morning walking with his dog.

In this meaning it is generally used with the Indefinite Infinitive.

4. Reproach.

Only might is used in this meaning but not may.

You mightlend me a razor. I was shaved this morning with a sort of bill-

hook. (Galsworthy)

When might is used with the Indefinite Infinitive it is rather a request made in the tone of a reproach, as the above example shows. When it is used with the Perfect Infinitive, it expresses reproach.

I realize now how you spent your days and why you were so forgetful. Tennis

lesson, my eye. You might have toldme, you know. (Du Maurier)

Must.

The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb must.

And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)

I felt that I had to have the air. (De la Roche)

Baring, because of the type of work in which he was engaged, had been

obliged to forego making friends. (Wilson)

Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.

1. Obligation, necessity.

(a) due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to have to and is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences):

He must write. He must earn money. (London)

This education is indispensable for whatever career you select, and it must

not be slipshod or sketchy. (London)

The absence of necessity is expressed by need not:

Must I go there to-morrow?

Yes, you must.

No, you needn’t.

(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable:

All experience tended to show that man mustdie. (Galsworthy)

2. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

You must leave the room at once!

You must come to see me every vacation. (Voynich)

You must not speak to a prisoner in a foreign language, madam. (Voynich)

3. Probability or supposition.

Supposition bordering on assurance, almost a conviction. In this meaning must is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in affirmative sentences only. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть. If the action refers to the present the Indefinite Infinitive is used; if the action refers to the past the Perfect Infinitive is used.

Surely, they don’t want me for myself. Then they must want me for

something else. (London)

Безусловно, я не нужен им сам по себе. Тогда я, должно быть, нужен им

для чего-то другого.

Oh, Мае, think how he must be suffering!Poor man! (Webster)

О, Мэй, подумай только, как он, должно быть, страдает (как он должен

страдать)! Бедняга!

What a comfort you must have beento your blessed mother. (Dickens)

Каким утешением ты, должно быть, была для твоей дорогой матушки.

Is she still waiting? She must have been waitingfor an hour.

Она все ждет? Должно быть, она ждет уже целый час.

In negative sentences supposition is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.

Evidently, she did not know my address.

Supposition referring to the future cannot be expressed by must. The modal word probably or the modal expression to be likely are to be used instead.

She is not likely to come so late.

She will probably come to-morrow.

(For the use of must in subordinate clauses after the past tense of the verb in the principal clause see Chapter XIX, Indirect Speech, § 2, 8.)

§ 5. Should¹ and ought.

¹ Should was originally the past tense of shall, but in the course of its development it has acquired new shades of meaning.

The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.

I ought to have married; yes, I should have married long ago. (Poittsma)

There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to-infinitive.

When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

In wartime a man should not partwith his rifle. (Heym)

It’s murder, and we ought to stopit. (London)

When reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out.

“Youshould have been here last night when they brought back the DP’s to

the mines,” said Yates. (Heym).

She ought to have known that the whole subject was too dangerous to discuss

at night. (Galsworthy)

I know that I was weak in yielding to my mother’s will. I should not have

done so. (London)

She had no nerves; he oughtnever to have married a woman eighteen years

younger than himself. (Galsworthy)

Should and ought are sometimes used with the Continuous Infinitive and the Perfect Continuous Infinitive.

You should be learning your lessons, Jack, and not talking with Mary.

You ought to be helpingyour mother with your salary and not squandering

your money.

He should have been trying to break through the isolation the hospital had set

around Thorpe, he should have been doing many things other than walking

along the Seine quay. (Heym)

Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.

1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or. duty. In this meaning ought is more often used than should.

Martin’s hand instinctively closed on the piece of gold. In the same instant he

knew he oughtn’tto accept. (London).

Рука Мартина инстинктивно сжала золотую монету. В то же мгновение

он понял, что не должен принимать ее.

I promised her if ever the time came when she needed me, to be her friend.

Promises of that sort shouldnever be broken. (Meade)

Я обещал ей, если когда-либо наступит момент, когда я буду нужен,

быть ее другом. Такие обещания никогда не должны нарушаться.

2. Advisability.

In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it always shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.

You shouldbe more careful. (London)

Вам следует быть осторожнее.

You oughtto have Warmson to sleep in the house. (Galsworthy)

Нужно было бы, чтобы Уормсон спал у вас в доме.

3. Something which can be naturally expected.

It’s the last of the Madeira I had from Mr. Jolyon... it oughtto be in prime-

condition still. (Galsworthy)

Это последняя бутылка мадеры, которую я получил от мистера

Джолиона... она должна быть еще в отличном состоянии.

If it’s a story by Wodehouse it shouldbe amusing.

Если это рассказ Вудхауса, он должен быть забавным.

§ 6. То be + Infinitive.

То be + Infinitive is a modal expression. Some of its meanings are close to those of modal verbs and expressions denoting obligation (must, shall, should, ought, to have + Infinitive).

This modal expression can be used in two tenses — the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).

Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise tomorrow. (Voynich)

They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. (Galsworthy)

To be + Infinitive expresses a weakened order, an arrangement, possibility, something thought of as unavoidable. The ways of rendering this expression in Russian differ in accordance with its meaning.

1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed.

In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

You are to gostraight to your room. You are to saynothing of this to anyone.

(De la Roche)

Ты должна идти прямо в свою комнату. Ты никому не должна ничего

говорить об этом.

Schlaghammer frowned. It was not up to him to judge Pettinger... but it was in

his province to interpret orders. He was to blast the entrances of the mine.

(Heym).

Шлагхаммер нахмурился. Не ему судить Петтингера, но толковать

приказы — это его право. Он должен взорвать все входы в шахту.

2. An arrangement, or agreement, part of a plan.

In this meaning both the Indefinite and the Perfect Infinitive can be used; the Perfect Infinitive shows that the action was not carried out.

I’m sorry, Major, we had an agreement — I was to dothe questioning here.

(Heym)

Простите, майор, мы условились, что допрос буду вести я.

We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a quarter to eight. (mutual

arrangement)

Мы должны были встретиться у входа в театр без четверти восемь.

“Have you seen him?” Martini asked. “No, he was to have met me here the

next morning.” (Voynich)

«Вы его видели?» — спросил Мартини. «Нет, он должен был встретить меня здесь на следующее утро».

3. Possibility.

In this meaning the passive form of the Infinitive is used unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.

For a long time neither was to be seen about their old haunts. (Dreiser)

В течение долгого времени их не видели в местах, где они обычно

бывали.

How arethey to know that you are well connected if you do not show it by

your costume? (Shaw)

Как могут они знать, что у вас большие связи, если вы не показываете

этого своей манерой одеваться?

And he knew that higher intellects than those of the Morse circle were to be

found in the world. (London)

И он знал, что можно найти людей с более высоким интеллектом, чем у

тех, которые принадлежали к кругу Морзов.

4. Something thought of as unavoidable.

Sally wished Morris could be on the same terms of easy friendliness with her

as he was with everybody else. But evidently, it was not tobe. (Prichard)

Салли хотела, чтобы Моррис поддерживал с ней такие же простые

дружеские отношения, как и со всеми остальными. Но, очевидно, этому

не суждено было быть.

I went about brooding over my lot, wondering almost hourly what was to

become of me. (Dreiser)

Я все время размышлял о своей судьбе, беспрестанно задавая себе

вопрос, что со мной станет.

N o t e 1. — Sometimes when it is used after the conjunction if it has the same

meaning as the verb to want.

If we are toremain friends you must tell me the truth.

N o t e 2.— It should be borne in mind that the Russian questions ‘Как мне

быть?’, ‘Что мне делать?’ are rendered in English by the modal expression

What am I to do?

§ 7. To have + Infinitive.

The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tense forms: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite.

I have to get up at six every day.

When water was rushing through the tents and everybody had to sleep in wet

blankets, it was treated as a joke. (Prichard)

I shall have to take the pupils into the hills, as usual, and see them settled

there. (Voynich)

The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression areformed with the help of the auxiliary do.

Didyou have to walk all the way home?

I did not have to walk,I took a tram.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.

I had imagined we should have to hold a large house-party for the occasion.

(Du Maurier)

I wouldn’t look through the letters — disappointment had to be postponed,

hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)

To have + Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by приходится, должен, вынужден.

Bing knew that if Willoughby demanded it, he had to give the report. (Heym)

Бинг знал, что, если Уиллоуби этого требует, он должен дать отчет.

And if my father was fighting drunk sometimes he wouldn’t let us into the

house so that we had to stay out all night. (Walsh)

И если мой отец в пьяном виде дрался, он иногда не впускал нас в дом,

так что нам приходилось ночевать на улице.

Though both the modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have + Infinitive express a shade of obligation or necessity, there is, a great difference in their meaning.

C o m p a r e:

As I wasto bethere at 5 sharp (part of an arrangement), I had to take a taxi

(necessity arising out of this arrangement).

Так как я должен был быть там ровно в пять, мне пришлось взять такси.

In colloquial English and especially in American English have, got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.

This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.

Okay, we’ll beat ‘em to it. Dick, we’ve got to keep awake,we’ve got to

watch things and be ready. (Lindsay)

The negative and interrogative forms are formed without any auxiliary.

Haveyou got to do all this work yourself?

No, I have not got to work so much.

There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.

You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to doa day’s

work to earn a day’s wages, and apples don’t grow on monkey-trees.

(Lindsay)

N o t e. — Pay special attention to the difference between I have something to

tell you and I have to tell you something. In the latter case the speaker

expresses the necessity of telling something to somebody, whereas in the

former the verb to have preserves to a certain extent its meaning of possession

and the speaker merely states that he has something which he either wants or

must communicate to somebody. The difference in word order is caused by

the difference in the meaning of the verb to have. In the first case it is not a

modal verb, thus, have is a simple predicate, something is a direct object and

the infinitive is an attribute. In the second sentence have to tell is a modal

expression, so it is a compound verbal modal predicate and something is an

object to the infinitive.

§ 8. Shall.

Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

It expresses determination on the part of the speaker, i. e. compulsion or order, threat or warning, promise.

As a rule shall as a modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

1. Compulsion or strict order.

In this meaning it is always used with the second and third persons and has a strong stress.

P a u l a. I’ve got to tell Mr. Tanqueray.

H u g h. By God, you shalldo nothing of the sort. (Pinero)

П а у л а. Я должна сказать мистеру Тэнкери.

Х ь ю. Клянусь богом, вы этого не сделаете.

“She shallgo off tomorrow, the little artful creature,” said Mrs. Sedley, with

great energy. (Thackeray)

«Она уедет завтра же, эта маленькая интриганка», — энергично заявила

миссис Седли.

In interrogative sentences shall is used in the first and third persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed.

ShallIshut the door, madam? (Dickens)

(Do you want me to shut the door?)

Закрыть дверь, сударыня?

Shallhe go there?

(Do you want him to go there?)

Идти ему туда?

2. Threat or warning.

In this meaning it is also used in the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

“That’s the last time!” she cried. “You shallnever see me again!” (Maugham)

«Это конец! — закричала она. — Вы никогда меня больше не

увидите!»

You shallrepent of this neglect of duty, Mr. Gummer. (Dickens)

Вы еще раскаетесь в том, что пренебрегаете долгом, мистер Гаммер.

3. Promise.

It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

Don’t be afraid, Jane, I saw it was an accident. You shall notbe punished.

(Ch. Bronte)

He бойся, Джейн, я видела, что это произошло случайно. Тебя не

накажут.

I shall make you happy, see if I don’t. You shalldo what you like, spend what

you like. (Thackeray)

Я сделаю вас счастливой, вот увидите. Вы будете делать что хотите и

тратить сколько хотите.

§ 9. Will.

Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or insistence.

1. Volition, intention.

In most cases this meaning is rendered in Russian by emphatic intonation, but sometimes the verb хотеть is used. It is used with all persons but mostly with the first person.

“What is this? Who is this? Turn this man out. Clear the office!” cried Mr.

Fang. “Iwillspeak,” cried the man. “Iwill not be turned out...” (Dickens)

«Что это? Кто это? Выставьте этого человека за дверь! Очистите

помещение!» — закричал мистер Фанг. «Нет, я буду говорить! —

крикнул человек. — Меня не выставят!»

Besides, since happiness is irrevocably denied me, I have a right to get

pleasure out of life: and I willget it, cost what it may. (E. Bronte)

Кроме того, раз счастье для меня невозможно, я вправе получать от

жизни удовольствия; и я буду получать их, чего бы это ни стоило.

Tell Mr. Osborne it is a cowardly letter, sir, a cowardly letter — Iwillnot

answer it. (Thackeray)

Скажите мистеру Осборну, что это трусливое письмо, сэр, трусливое; я

на него не отвечу.

Very often will is used after the conjunction if in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.

You may laugh if you willbut I was sure I should see her there. (E. Bronte)

Можете смеяться, если хотите, но я был уверен, что встречу ее там.

The modal verb wilt is used in polite requests.

Willyou have a cup of tea?

Willyou give me a piece of bread, for I am very hungry? (Ch. Bronte)

N o t e. — The modal verb will should not be confused with the auxiliary will

in American English where there is a marked tendency to use it with all the

persons.

2. Persistence referring to the present or to the future.

“Don’t tell me.” “But I willtell you,” repeated Sikes. (Dickens)

«He говорите мне про это». «А я все равно скажу», — повторил Сайкc.

She begins to act very strangely. She willnot speak, she willnot eat; finally

she dies. (Maugham)

Она начинает вести себя очень странно. Она не желает говорить, она не

желает есть, наконец, она умирает.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of personification here).

It’s no use trying to open the door, it will notopen.

Нечего стараться открыть эту дверь — она все равно не откроется.

§ 10. Would.

Would was originally the past tense of will in the same way as should was the past tense of shall. But while the latter has acquired new shades of meaning, would has preserved those of will. Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past.

1. Volition.

In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.

She was going away and would notsay where she was going. (Dreiser)

Она уезжала и не хотела сказать, куда едет.

2. Persistence.

I asked him not to bang the door, but he woulddo it.

Я просил его на хлопать дверью, а он все продолжал хлопать.

Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Goethe wouldnot let him go.

(Maugham)

Несколько раз Эккерман пытался уйти, но Гёте ни за что не отпускал

его.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things in the same way as will (see § 9), but in this use would is more common than will.

...and that was all he could see, for the sedan doors wouldn’topen and the

blinds wouldn’tpull up. (Dickens)

...и это было все, что ему было видно, ибо двери портшеза никак не

открывались и занавеси никак не поднимались.

§ 11. Dare.

Dare means ‘to have the courage (or impertinence) to do something’. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.

“How dareyou ask the little Kelveys into the courtyard,” said her cold,

furious voice. (Mansfield)

The verb dare as well as need has some peculiarities which make it different from other modal verbs.

It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary do in the interrogative and negative forms, ‑s in the third person singular and the to-Infinitive) and as an anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without ‑s in the third person singular and without the particle to before the infinitive which follows it). Dare has two forms — dare for the Present and dared for the Past.

Didhe dare to strike me when I was down? (E. Bronte)

He did not dare to meet his uncle. (Kruisinga)

How dareyou go out by yourself after the orders I gave you? (Shaw)

You dare address me in that tone! (Shaw)

Sometimes dare takes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive.

You know you didn’t dare give the order to charge the bridge until you saw

us on the other side. (Shaw) ‘

Dare is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. However, we often come across I dare say which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning ‘I suppose’. Dare is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

§ 12. Need.

Need expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences.

You needn’tbe in such a fright. Take my arm. (Shaw)

He надо так бояться. Возьмите меня, под руку.

N o t e. — When need is used in the meaning of ‘to be in want of’ it is treated

as a normal verb.

He needs a new pair of shoes.

Need has only one tense form — the Present. In the same way as dare, need is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb; the latter is much more common in colloquial English.

One need to be careful.(Zandvoort)

He did not need to be told twice. (Zandvoort)

Why needhe bother us? (Knuslnga)

I am here. You needn’t be afraid. (Greene)

I need hardly sayI would do anything in the world to ensure Gwendolen’s

happiness. (Wilde)

Need is used both with the Indefinite and with the Perfect Infinitive.

I suppose I needn’t have madethat observation. (Pinero)

Пожалуй, не к чему мне было делать такое замечание.

MOOD

Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.

In Modern English we distinguish three moods:

(1) The Indicative Mood.

(2) The Imperative Mood.

(3) The Subjunctive Mood.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD

The Indicative Moodshows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a fact.

We wenthome early in the evening. (Dickens)

The Indicative Mood is also used to express a real condition, i. e. a condition the realization of which is considered possible.

If it rains,Ishall stayat home.

If Catherine disobeys us,we shall disinherither. (Eliot)

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

The Imperative Mood expresses a command or a request. In Modern English the Imperative Mood has only one form which coincides with the infinitive without the particle to; it is used in the second person (singular and plural).

Be quiet and hear what I tell you. (Eliot)

Please put the papers on the table by the bed.(Hemingway)

In forming the negative the auxiliary verb to do is always used, even with the verb to be.

Hush! Don’t make a noise! (Eliot)

Don’t be angry... (Hemingway)

The auxiliary verb to do may also be used in affirmative sentences to make the request more emphatic.

But now, do sing again to us. (Eliot)

To make a request or an order more emphatic the subject expressed by the pronoun you is sometimes used. It is characteristic of colloquial speech.

I’ll drive and you sleepawhile. (Hemingway)

N o t e. — A command addressed to the third person singular and plural is

usually expressed with the help of the verb to let.

Letthe child go home at once.

Пусть ребенок сейчас же идет домой.

Letthe children go home at once.

Пусть дети сейчас же идут домой.

With the first person plural the verb to let isused to express an exhortation to a joint action.

Let’s go and have some fresh coffee. (Mansfield)

Пойдемте выпьем свежего кофе.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

§ 1. The Subjunctive Moodshows that the action or state expressed by the verb ispresented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker, to real facts. (A detailed treatment of this use of the Subjunctive Mood is given in § 16.)

In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.

“I wish Iwereten years older,” I said. (Braine)

«Хотел бы я быть на десять лет старше», — сказал я.

I wish you would speakrationally. (E. Bronte)

Я хотел бы, чтобы вы говорили разумно.

§ 2. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Moodcan be traced to theOld English period when the Subjunctive Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic, forms. In Old English the Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different from those of the Indicative.

In course of time most of the inflections were lost and the difference between the forms of the Subjunctive and those of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive which have survived; they are as follows: the Present Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of the verb to be.

The Present Subjunctive

to be	to have, to know, to speak, etc.
I be he,