The use of the Past Perfect.

1. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a cer­tain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

They had walked only a few steps when a second group of tanks drew up on

the side road. (Heym)

After she had cried out,she felt easier. (Heym)

Fortunately the rain had stoppedbefore we started. (Bennett)

By this time Cowperwood had writtenAileen under no circumstances to try

to see him. (Dreiser)

The clock had not struckwhen he reached Gray’s Inn. (Dickens)

The definite moment can be understood from the situation.

The Squire had laid downhis knife and fork, and was staring at his son in

amazement. (Eliot)

The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect.

Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had gotan

unpleasant letter. (Collins)

The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely... when, no sooner... than.

They hadno sooner arrivedat this point than a most violent and startling

knocking was heard. (Jerome)

Nell hadscarcely settledherself on a little heap of strawin the corner when

she fell asleep. (Dickens)

For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted.

No sooner hadshe laidherself down than she heard the prolonged trill of the

front-door bell. (Bennett)

The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, already, yet.

Elsie, who had notyet assumedthe white cap, was sweeping the stairs.

(Bennett)

2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.

He waited until she had foundthe latch-key and opened the door. (Bennett)

The Squire was purple with anger before his son had donespeaking. (Eliot)

The Past Perfect is rendered in Russian by the past perfective

By this time Cowperwood had writtenAileen under no circumstances to try

to see him. (Dreiser)

К этому времени Каупервуд написалЭйлин, чтобы она ни в коем случае

не пыталась с ним встретиться.

3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. This use is called the Past Perfect Inclusive. The starting point or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the preposition since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used.

The Past Perfect Inclusive is used:

(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.

Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for

some time. (Eliot)

(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common. See § 32.)

Those two had not spokento each other for three days and were in a state of

rage. (Bennett)

(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to last etc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is possible. See § 32.)

The ride had lastedabout ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a

halt. (Heym)

The Past Perfect Inclusive is generally rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

He had not writtena line since he arrived.

Он не написални строчки с тех пор, как приехал.

The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.

1. The Past Perfect is not used to denote a succession of actions. In this case the Past Indefinite is used.

The Past Indefinite is used with the conjunctions after, before, when if the relation between the actions approaches succession, i. e. when the idea of completion is of no importance.

He went on with his work after he hada short rest.

He had a short rest before he wenton with his work.

When I wrotethe letter, I posted it.

2. Verbs of motion and sense perception such as to come, to arrive, to return, to see, to hear, in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are practically simultaneous.

When he (Val) came down... he found his mother scrupulous in a low

evening dress... (Galsworthy)

When he heardthe first line of the poem, he recognized it at once.

When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used.

He knew the poem by heart when he had heardit several times.

THE FUTURE PERFECT