The words of the category of state
§ 1.The words of the category of state denote the temporary stateor conditionof persons or things.
But Johnny and Paddy were asleep,the rose-red glow had paled, bats were
flying, and still the bathers had not returned. (Mansfield)
Crearer said, “I’m afraid,General, we have to rely on the appeal of the
leaflet.” (Heym)
§ 2. As regards formthe words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake, etc.
§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
“He is awake!”Sally cried. (Saxton)
That was all right in the daytime, but while Alice was putting her to bed she
grew suddenly afraid.(Mansfield)
When he got into bed, he was sure he’d never fall asleep,and yet he was dog-
tired. (Wilson).
...but at the first double knock every window in the street became alivewith
female heads. (Dickens)
Words of the category of state may be used as objective predicatives.
She was saying that she intended to leave him entirely aloneagain. (Wilson)
Words of the category of state may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike adjectives they cannot be placed before the words they modify. As attributes they may be only used in post-position:
The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff as though they had
fainted in the drawing-room, and their two little children asleepupstairs were
really too big for the doll’s house. (Mansfield)
§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
Sally, who had been half asleepwith her head on Eddie’s lap, woke up and
began chanting. (Saxton)
Mrs. Gamp’s curtains were drawn close, and Mrs. Gamp was fast asleep.
(Dickens).
He immediately came fully awake.(Heym)
Words of the category of state may take prepositional indirect objects.
“You were afraid of the war?”she asked compassionately. (Heym)
...but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with
female head.(Dickens)
“Merry,” cried that more prudent damsel, “really I am ashamed of you.”
(Dickens)
Chapter VII
THE VERB
§ 1.The verb is apart of speech which denotes an action. The verb has the following grammatical categories: person,number, tense,aspect,voiceand mood.These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.
Verbs may be transitiveand intransitive.
Verbs have finite formswhich can be used as the predicate of a sentence and non-finite formswhich cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
§ 2. According to their morphological structureverbs aredivided into:
(a) simple(read, live, hide, speak);
(b) derived,i. e. having affixes (magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose);
(c) compound,i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, browbeat);
(d) composite,consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, go away, give up).
The postposition often changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. Thus, there are composite verbs whose meaning is different from the meaning of their components: to give up — бросать, прекращать; to bring up — воспитывать; to do away — ликвидировать.
There are other composite verbs in which the original meaning of its components is preserved: to stand up, to come in, to go out, to put on.
§ 3.The basic formsof the verb in Modern English are: the Infinitive,the Past Indefiniteand Participle II:to speak — spoke — spoken.
According to the way in which the Past Indefinite and Participle II are formed, verbs are divided into three groups: regular verbs, irregular verbs, and mixed verbs.
1. Regular verbs. They form the Past Indefinite and Participle II by adding ‑ed to the stem of the verb, or only ‑d if the stem of the verb ends in ‑e.
to want — wanted
to open — opened
to unite — united
to live — lived
The pronunciation of ‑ed (-d) depends on the sound preceding it. It is pronounced:
[Id] after t, d: wanted ["wPntId], landed ["lxndId];
[d] after voiced consonants except d and after vowels: opened ["qupqnd], played [pleId];
[t] after voiceless consonants except t: worked [wWkt].
The following spelling rules should be observed:
(a) Final у is changed into i before the addition of ‑ed if it is preceded by a consonant.
to carry — carried
to reply — replied
у remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel.
to enjoy — enjoyed
(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a short stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled.
to stop — stopped
to plan — planned
to sob — sobbed
to stir — stirred
to submit — submitted
Final r is doubled if it is preceded by a stressed vowel.
to occur — occurred
to prefer — preferred
to refer — referred
Final r is not doubled when preceded by a diphthong.
to appear — appeared
Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel, stressed or unstressed:
to compel — compelled
to quarrel — quarrelled
2. Irregular verbs. Here belong the following groups of verbs: (a) verbs which change their root vowel.
to sing — sang — sung
to meet — met — met
to win — won — won
(b) verbs which change their root vowel and add ‑en for Participle II.
to speak — spoke — spoken
to write — wrote — written
to take — took — taken
(c) verbs which change their root vowel and add ‑d or -t.
to sell — sold — sold
to bring — brought — brought
(d) verbs which change their final ‑d into ‑t.
to send — sent — sent
to build — built — built
(e) verbs which have the same form for the Infinitive, Past Indefinite and Participle II.
to put — put — put
to set — set — set
to shut — shut — shut
(f) verbs whose forms come from different stems.
to be — was, were — been
to go — went — gone
(g) special irregular verbs.
to have — had — had
to make — made — made
to do — did — done
(h) defective (anomalous) verbs.
can — could
must
ought
may — might
will — would
shall — should
3. Mixed verbs. Their Past Indefinite is of the regular type, and their Participle II is of the irregular type:
to show — showed — shown
to sow — sowed — sown
§ 4. According to the syntactic functionof verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliaryverbs and linkverbs.
1. Notional verbsare those which have a full meaning of their own and can be used without any additional words as a simple predicate. Here belong such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, to know, to ask.
Ricky surroundedher with great care and luxury. (Stern)
She knewwhat he was thinking.(Galsworthy)
2. Auxiliary verbsare those which have lost their meaning and are used only as form words, thus having only a grammatical function. They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should, would, may.
Idon’t recollect that he ever did anything, at least not in my time.
(Galsworthy)
Their father... had comefrom Dorsetshire near the beginning of the century.
(Galsworthy)
But all this time James was musing... (Galsworthy)
He would have succeeded splendidly at the Bar. (Galsworthy)
3. Link verbsare verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are used in the compound nominal predicate.
The house wastoo big. (Galsworthy)
The old face lookedworn and hollow again. (Galsworthy)
Manson no longer feltdespondent, but happy, elated, hopeful. (Cronin)
In different contexts the same verb can be used as a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a link verb:
...She turnedher head sullenly away from me. (Collins) (NOTIONAL
VERB)
She... turneddeadly pale.(Collins) (LINK VERB)
No one wasthere to meet him. (Lindsay) (NOTIONAL VERB)
She wasnot a ten-year-old girl any more... (Dreiser) (LINK VERB)
This evening Bathsheba was unusually excited,her red cheeks and lips
contrasting lustrously with her shadowy hair. (Hardy) (LINK VERB)
There is a special group of verbs which cannot be used without additional words, though they have a meaning of their own. These aremodal verbs such as can, may, must, ought, etc.
A slow swell of feeling choked the little boy’s heart. Though he couldnot,
darednot question the consul’s strict command, its purpose lay beyond his
comprehension. (Cronin)
“We ought to have stayed in Italy,” he said. “We oughtnever to have come
back to Manderley.” (Du Maurier)
The same verb in different contexts can be modal and auxiliary.
I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I shouldnot be seen.(Du
Maurier) (AUXILIARY VERB)
I don’t honestly think Lady Crowan was exaggerating when she said
something should be done in your honour. (Du Maurier) (MODAL VERB)
I had no idea she would do that. (Du Maurier) (AUXILIARY VERB)
He needed a cook. Why couldn’t she apply for the job? But Morris wouldnot
hear of it. (Prichard) (MODAL VERB)
§ 5. As has been stated above a verb can be transitiveandintransitive. Transitive verbs can take a direct object, i. e. they express an action which passes on to a person or thing directly. Here belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make, to see, to show, to bring, to love etc.
Jon hadnever loved her so much as in that minute which seemed to falsify
Fleur’s fears and to release his soul. (Galsworthy)
Youth only recognizes Age by fits and starts. Jon, for one, hadnever really
seen his father’s age till he came back from Spain. (Galsworthy)
There are some transitive verbs which are hardly ever used without a direct object, such as to take, to make, to give, to have.
Arthur signed the receipt, took his papers and went out in dead silence.
(Voynich)
There are other verbs which can be used either with or without a direct object, such as to read, to write, to hear, to see.
On Friday night about eleven he had packed his bag and was leaning out of
his window... when he hearda tiny sound,as of a finger-nail, tapping on his
door. (Galsworthy)
The starch, as he soon heard,was valued at ten dollars a barrel and it only
brought six. (Dreiser)
Intransitive verbs cannot take a direct object. Here belong such verbs as to stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim.
She shrank slowly away from him, and stoodquite still. (Voynich)
There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.
This book sellswell.
Though Dora tried hard the figures would not add.
There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to run, etc.
For that man, I’ve been running people through the front line! (Heym)
И для этого человека я гонял людей через линию фронта!
The stream which worked the mill came bubbling down in a dozen rivulets.
(Galsworthy)
Река, приводившая в движение мельницу, разбегалась, журча, на десятки
ручейков.
In these examples the verbs are used in a causative meaning, i. e. the person or thing denoted by the object is made to perform the action denoted by the verb.
There are verbs which in different contexts can be transitive or intransitive. It is impossible to say which meaning is primary and which is secondary. Here belong such verbs as to open, to move, to turn, to change, to drop, etc.1
1 For this treatment of transitive and intransitive verbs see: В. Н. Жигадло, И. П. Иванова. Л. Л. Иофик. Современный английский язык, М., 1956. стр. 87–89.
The woman opened the door at once almost breathlessly. (Hardy)
While she stood hesitating, the door opened, and an old man came forth
shading a candle with one hand. (Hardy)
§ 6. A verb can also have some aspect characteristics depending solely on its lexical meaning. Accordingly verbs are divided into terminative,non-terminativeand verbs of double lexical (aspect) character.
1.Terminative verbs denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which it cannot go. Here belong simple and composite verbs, such as to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to. They can correspond both to Russian verbs of imperfective and of perfective aspect: to come — приходить, прийти; to build — строить, построить; to give — давать, дать; to die — умирать, умереть.
He went to the kitchen and broughthim a cake and a plate of biscuits.
(Carter)
Every head turned. Row after row of men and women stood upto see who it
was making his way to the front. (Carter)
2. Non-terminative verbs denote a certain action which does not imply any limit. Here belong such verbs as to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to hope, to sit, etc.
They correspond to Russian verbs of imperfective aspect only: to live — жить, to exist — существовать, to sleep — спать.
She saterect in the hard chair, her gloved hands gracefully folded in her lap.
(Carter)
2. Verbs of double lexical character in certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and in others, a non-terminative meaning. Here belong such verbs as to see, to hear, to write, to read, to translate.
Arthur looked round the room, saw that everything was hidden, and unlocked
the door. (Voynich)
Артур бросил взгляд на комнату, увидел, что все спрятано, и отпер
дверь.
I don’t believe in fairies. I never see any. (Galsworthy)
Я не верю в фей. Я их никогда не вижу.
§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person,number,tense,aspect,voiceand mood.
In Modern English there are but few forms indicating person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb. These are:
(1) The third person singular Present Indefinite Indicative — he speaks.
(2) The Future Indefinite tense.
| I shall speak | We shall speak |
| He will speak | They will speak |
The verb to be has suppletive forms for different persons (singular and plural).
| I am, He is, | was was | We You } They | are, were |
§ 8. The category of tense is very clearly expressed in the forms of the English verb. This category denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to some definite moment in the past or future. The category of tense and the category of aspect are intermingled.
The category of aspectshows the way in which the action develops, whether it is in progress or completed, etc. In Russian the category of aspect predominates, and the category of tense is subordinated to it. In English contrariwise the category of tense predominates and aspect is subordinated to it. Some of the English tenses denote time relations, others denote both time and aspect relations. There are four groups of tenses: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous. The Indefinite form has no aspect characteristics whatever, the Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous forms denote both time and aspect relations. Each of these forms includes four tenses: Present, Past, Future and Future in the Past, i. e. future from the point of view of the past. Thus there are 16 tenses in English.
(For detailed treatment see Tenses, § 1–37.)
§ 9. Voiceis the category of the verb which indicates relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
There are three voices in English: the active voice, the passive voice, and the neuter-reflexive voice.
The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate.
The passive voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is acted upon.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter VII, Passive Voice, § 1–5.)
The neuter-reflexive voice shows that the action expressed by’ the predicate passes on to the subject. This voice is formed by means of a reflexive pronoun.
Helen lifted herself up and looked towards nurse. (Gaskell)
The truth was, Mary was dressing herself. (Gaskell)
§ 10. Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
We distinguish the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter VII, Mood.)
TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE
THE INDEFINITE FORM
The Indefinite form merely shows that the action takes place in the present, past or future. The form of the verb gives no indication as to its duration or completion.
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE