Communicative effect upon the receptor
A target text should convey the same information as the source text and produce the same impact on the receptor as does the source text.215 To get full information from the text, the receptor must have adequate background knowledge. This knowledge may not be enough if the receptor is not well acquainted with the source language culture. New realia, habits and customs are usually commented upon by a translator.* Sometimes a translator uses commentary notes in the text, but they are inconvenient, as they distract the reader’s attention. It is also possible to place a commentary in the footnote. But most typically, explication is given after the text or, more rarely, before it.
Besides extended commentaries, a translator can use a technique of explicatory translation: вчера мы купили коробку «Птичьего молока». – We bought a box of candies “Bird Milk” yesterday. Irrelevant information can be reduced from the text or generalized, if its explanation distracts the reader’s attention: “I’m very busy,” Ollie answered as he sat in a worn Naugahydechair. (Grisham) – «Я очень занят,»- ответил Олли, сидя в потрепанном дерматиновом кресле.
Substitutions, the aim of which is to make the text closer and more comprehensible for the receptor, are not infrequent in translation. A good example of substitution is provided by V. Nabokov’s Аня в стране чудес, a translation of Alice in Wonderland by L. Carroll. Addressing the tale to a young reader, Nabokov replaced some English realia with their Russian analogues (for example, when Alice grew so tall that her feet seemed to be almost out of sight, she started planning how she would send them presents to the following address: Alice’s Right Foot, Esq.
Hearthrug,
near the Fender;216
Nabokov simulated a Russian address:
Госпоже Правой Ноге Аниной,
Город Коврик
Паркетная губерния217),
and changed the names into Russian (Alice – Аня, Mary-Anne – Маша, Pat – Петька). He even used Russian poetry allusions instead of English nursery parodies written by Carroll:
“ ‘You are old, father William,’ the young man said,
‘And your hair has become very white;
And yet you incessantly stand on your head –
Do you think, at your age, it is right?’
“ ‘In my youth,’ Father William replied to his son,
I feared it might injure the brain;
But now that I’m perfectly sure I have none,
Why, I do it again and again.’ ” (a parody on R. Southey)
These lines are generally unfamiliar to a Russian child. To make a Russian reader enjoy the parody, Nabokov alluded to Lermontov lines, known by every Russian schoolchild:
- Скажи-ка, дядя, ведь недаром
Тебя считают очень старым:
Ведь, право же, ты сед
И располнел ты несказанно.
Зачем же ходишь постоянно
На голове? Ведь, право ж, странно
Шалить на склоне лет!
И молвил он: «В былое время
Держал, как дорогое бремя,
Я голову свою…
Теперь же, скажем откровенно,
Мозгов лишен я совершенно
И с легким сердцем, вдохновенно
На голове стою.»
Regarding the receptor’s comprehension of the text, another problem arises – rendering the historical overtone of a text. A source text can be distanced from the target language receptor not only in culture, but also in time. Books belonging to earlier literature are understood differently by source language readers and target language readers, due to the difference in their knowledge and cultural backgrounds. How can a translator solve the problem of conveying a historical coloring? There are two main ways: 1) using an archaic syntax and vocabulary, typical of the target language works (for example, when translating from English into Russian, using 18th century Russian, of the type: Правда, чтоб видеть сие явственнее еще, потребно самому иметь и очи и чувства ипохондрические; но я, благодаря бога! будучи оными всещедро одарен, надеюсь представить вам самую живейшую картину тех лиц и особ, с коими я на берегу часто общался. – Н. Новиков); 2) using today’s syntax and some archaic words and culture-bound words for the local and historical coloring. This can be exemplified by an abstract from Gulliver’s Travels by J. Swift: My father had a small estate in Nottinghamshire; I was the third of five sons. He sent me to Emanuel College in Cambridge, at fourteen years old, where I resided three years, and applied myself close to my studies; but the charge of maintaining me (although I had a very scanty allowance) being too great for a narrow future, I was bound apprentice to Mr. James Bates, an eminent surgeon in London, with whom I continued four years; and my father now and then sending me small sums of money, I laid them out in learning navigation, and other parts of the mathematics, useful to those who intend to travel, as I always believed it would be some time or other my fortune to do. The translator did some partitioning and other transformations to make the text better adapted to the contemporary reader, retaining the culture-bound words (unfortunately, some information was necessarily reduced): Я уроженец Ноттингемпшира, где у моего отца было небольшое поместье. Когда мне исполнилось четырнадцать лет, отец послал меня в колледж Иманьюела в Кембридже. Там я пробыл три года, прилежно занимаясь науками. Однако отцу было не по средствам дольше содержать меня в колледже, поэтому он взял меня оттуда и отдал в учение к выдающемуся лондонскому врачу мистеру Джемсу Бетсу, у которого я провел четыре года. Все деньги, какие изредка присылал мне отец, я тратил на изучение навигации и других отраслей математики. Эти науки всегда могли пригодиться в путешествии, а я был убежден, что судьба предназначила мне сделаться путешественником. (Transl. by B. Engelgardt)
The first method may be misleading in the sense that it can make the reader imagine him/herself reading a Russian original rather than a translation. Therefore, translators mostly prefer the second way of rendering historical texts.
TRANSLATOR’S IMPACT
In the attempt to make a good translation, a translator, nevertheless bears the influence of cultural and literary trends typical of the time, which effect his/her outlook and have a certain impact on the translation. It brings us back to the history of translation. It is known that Vasily Zhukovsky, translating Byron, avoided all themes of rebellion from the poet’s works, as they were alien to the translator. On the other hand, he emphasized the religious motifs in Byron’s poems. He adjusted Byron’s poetry to himself, which allowed V. Belinsky to say that he was a poet rather than a translator.
Another example of ideological incursion in translation was Voltaire’s translation of Hamlet’s soliloquy, not as a meditation on death, but as a diatribe against religion.218
These days it is considered necessary for a translator to follow only the source language author, sometimes at the expense of his/her own artistic work.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the quality of translation is dependent on translator’s personal knowledge, intuitions and artistic competence.