Combinability of prepositions

§ 248. As a rule a preposition governs a noun. However it may also be followed by a pronoun, a gerundial phrase or a clause with nominal function, as in:

for advantage,atfive o’clock,at taking measures, he was surprised at what he saw.

As prepositions indicate only the relationship between two words their position is clearly defined.

Many prepositions tend to form a phrase called aprepositional phrase,often combining either with the preceding verb or adjective, or with the following noun. Such prepositions cannot be replaced by others.

Phrases comprising verbs with prepositions to laugh at, to call for, to refer to, to look for (at, after) very often function as idioms, making one whole, so that the verb retains the preposition even if its complement is transferred, as in the passive construction:

quick action was calledfor, the book is often referredto.

With some polysemantic verbs the preposition often indicates its meaning, as in:

to lookfor to lookat to lookafter to lookthrough

- искать - смотреть (на) - присматривать (за) - просматривать

Some verbs are used with or without a preposition, with but slight difference as to content. Thus no preposition is used in the boy climbed the tree, but it is found in he climbedup the tree.

Similarly a preposition is often so closely connected with the adjective or stative it follows, that it has practically no separate meaning, and may be said to be nothing but a formal means of connecting the word with its complement:

She was afraidof the dog; The country is richin minerals.

Prepositions with nouns or clauses may modify a preceding noun, as in:

menat work, methodof teaching, the novelabout which we've been speaking.

Positional characteristics

§ 249. Normally a preposition stands between two words to express the relation between them. However, there are cases when one of the two words with which the preposition combines either takes the initial position or is not used at all. In these cases the preposition is attached to the remaining word. It occurs in:

1) special questions, both direct and indirect:

What are you drivingat?

Who shall I send itto?

What train shall I goby?

I asked him who the flowers werefor.

However, the preposition may precede the interrogative or relative words. In this case the sentence sounds more formal.

To whom shall I send this?

By what train shall I go?

He did not knowto whom he should turn for help.

The preposition precedes the interrogative when the preposition forms a stock phrase with a noun.

In what respect was he suspicious?

To what extent is this true?

In abbreviated sentences and clauses consisting only of a preposition and an interrogative word the preposition normally precedes it.

- Butto whom?

In colloquial style the preposition is at the end.

- Who by?

- “Apologize?” she said. “Whatabout?”

2) some clauses beginning with conjunctive and relative pronouns and in subordinate contact clauses:

What I am thinkingof is how he got there.

The man I told youabout is my relative.

The girl he is in lovewith studies at the University.

It is his talents he relieson.

In formal style however, the preposition precedes the connective:

The manabout whom I told you is a relative of mine.

3) exclamatory sentences:

What a nice place to livein!

4) passive constructions:

The doctor was immediately sentfor.

How strange it is to be talkedto in this way.

5) some syntactical patterns with the infinitive or gerund:

He is difficult to dealwith.

It is not worth worryingabont.

This is not a suitable house to livein.

Note:

If two or more prepositions refer to one word, the second (third) preposition may be used absolutely:

Holly thought of the lashesabove andbelow Val’s eyes, especiallybelow.

His wife was attachedto, and dependenton, him.

THE CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is a function word indicating the connection between two notional words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Morphological composition

§ 250. According to their morphological structure conjunctions fall into the following types:

1. Simple conjunctions:

and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when.

2. Derived conjunctions;

until, unless, seeing, supposing, provided.

3. Compound conjunctions:

whereas, wherever.

4. Composite conjunctions:

as well as, in case, for fear, on condition that, on the ground that, as long as, etc.

Several conjunctions form correlative pairs, though strictly speaking the first element is not a conjunction:

both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but (also), whether ...or.

Semantic characteristics

§ 251. Unlike prepositions, most conjunctions usually retain their specific meaning,

No one was pleased when he came.

No one would be pleased if he came.

No one was pleased because he came.

No one was pleased though he came.

Exceptions are those conjunctions which may be used in more than one function (that, if, whether, as). Of these the conjunction that possesses the most vague semantic content.

According to their meaning (or rather the semantic relation they express) all conjunctions fall into two types:coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions expresscopulative, disjunctive, adversativeandcausative-consecutive connections. These four main types of coordinative connection allow of different shades of meaning,* depending on the context. Thuscopulative conjunctions (and, nor, as well as, both ... and) denote not only simple addition, but sometimes express opposition, explanation, consequence. Nor expresses copulative connection and negative meaning at the same time, it very often correlates with negation in the preceding clause.

* See also the paragraph on conjuncts which are more specialized connectors, expressing a more specific connection.

He didn't doubt it for a moment, nor had he any fears about the possible turn of the events.

Note 1:

The coordinating conjunction and may be used in a somewhat different function if it joins the same nouns;

the effect may be to suggest that different types of persons or objects should be distinguished:

There are teachers and teachers. (There are good and bad teachers.)

If the noun is repeated more than once, the effect is to suggest a large number:

There were faces and faces and faces all around him.

The repetition of verbs produces an effect of continuous action or of increase in degree:

He talked and talked and talked.

Note 2:

If the pronouns you and I, or their case forms are joined by the conjunction and, conventions of politeness require that you should always come first:

you and I; you or me; you and they; you and them.

Thedisjunctive conjunctions or, otherwise denote a choice between two alternatives.

I’ll call on you on Saturday or on Sunday.

Did it matter where he went, what he did, or when he did it?

Theadversative conjunctions but, not that denote contrast or contradiction.

He was tall but did not look it because of his broad shoulders.

They were silent, but there was no resentment on their faces.

There is only onecausal conjunction for, which denotes reason or cause, and oneresultative conjunction so.

He was never in the know of things, for nobody told him anything.

It was Saturday, so they were back from school early.