Read the extract of the text. Define its general idea and genre (scientific, popular, science or fiction).

Equally marked were the contrasts in the countryside. The nobles, who were losing those social functions that had been their justification in the earlier Middle Ages, had acquired, in the French wars, settled habits of violence. They were evolving on the one hand, into modern landowners and, on the other, into gangster chiefs, each with his band of armed retainers, drawn from unemployed soldiers and those of the lesser gentry who had been unable to adapt themselves to the changed conditions.

In earlier times, the nobles had their own courts of Law. Now they used their armed followers to overawe and defy the local courts. Great nobles undertook to protect their followers from justice, and this practice, known as maintenance, became a permanent scandal. Nobody from members of Parliament down to the magistrates were secure from the menace of these bands. The fundamental cause of this political gangsterism was the decay of the great estates as economic units. Agricultural prices were falling and a corresponding fall in rent prevented the lords from restoring their positions at the expense of their tenants. For a time war plunder and the profits of war contracting gave them a partial solution: however, with the ending of the Hundred Years’ War, the only means left by which many great lords could increase their income was real brigandage.

Commentary

· On the one hand… on the other hand – с одной стороны, с другой стороны.

· For a time – на некоторое время, некоторое время, временно.

TEXT THREE

Translate in writing the extract into Russian.

The Age Of “Compromise”

The term “compromise” is an early concept in any study of Victorian England. The society of these years (the 1850s) represents a series of com­promises. There were of course many protests against this society, but dur­ing this decade no really important changes were made: these came later. The principle of “Live and let live” was at work, even if only within certain well-defined limits. It encouraged a decent piety and, failing that, at least an obvious respectability. The upper class and the middle class (especially if it had money) came closer together. The Reform Bill, dating back to 1832, leaving five men out of six without a vote because they were not £10 householders, was already out of date, but there would not be another Reform Bill, enlarging the franchise, until 1867. The new oligarchy the old Bill had helped to create had settled down and felt quite comfortable. The English system avoided revolution or indeed any startling radical changes by opening the Establishment to any new powerful class. In poli­tics and actual government, as distinct from the general tone and style of society, the upper class in the 1850s was still surprisingly dominant. The foreground in the Westminster scene was filled with Lords. Room had to be made for a few commoners, notably Disraeli, and Gladstone who became Chancellors of the Exchequer, but it was the Lords who took over most of the chief ministries, no matter how often cabinets were formed. It would be many years before a popular wit like W. S. Gilbert could raise a laugh by saying that the House of Lords did nothing in particular and did it very well. In the 1850s the House of Lords did a great deal, though not always very well. Quite apart from accepting or rejecting bills already passed by the Commons, this ‘other House’ still had a considerable in­fluence on the actual composition of the Commons. In the country elec­tions a local peer, a great landowner who was important both in his econo­mic patronage and his social pull, might easily decide what safe men should represent the constituency. Many men who resented his patronage and pull might not have had any vote, or, if they had, would find it hard to influence other voters. These might know only well how their bread could be buttered or might act out of downright snobbery. For one result of the upper class and the more affluent middle class coming together, no longer glaring at one another across a barrier, was the rapid spread of social snobbery.

Commentary

· Franchise – право участвовать в голосовании, право голоса.

· The Establishment – истэблишмент, власть имущие, правящие круги.

· The Westminster scene – (зд.) парламент.

· Disraeli – Бенджамин Дизраэли (1804-1881), премьер-министр Великобритании в 1868 и 1874-1880 гг.; лидер консервативной партии. В 1852, 1858-59, 1866-68-министр финансов. Правительство Дизраэли вело политику колониальных захватов (захват Кипра в 1878 г., подготовка аннексии Египта и др.).

· Gladstone – Вильям Гладстон (1809-1898), премьер-министр Великобритании в 1868-1874 гг., 1880-85, 1886-94 гг.; лидер либеральной партии с 1868 г. Правительство Гладстона подавляло национально-освободительное движение в Ирландии. В 1882 г. осуществило захват Египта.

· But it was the Lords who took over most of the chief ministries – но именно члены палаты лордов возглавляли большинство важнейших министерств.

· No longer – уже не, больше не.

This question is no longer important to him. – Этот вопрос для него уже не важен.

He could stay no longer here. – Он больше не мог здесь оставаться.

Glossary

· Foreground – the main position;

· social pull – ties;

· piety – respect for God and religion;

· householder – someone who owns or is in charge of a house;

· startling – very unusual or surprising;

· dominant – stronger, more powerful or more noticeable than other people or things;

· to make room (for) – to give opportunity;

· commoner – someone who is not a member of a noble family;

· to form a cabinet – to establish a cabinet;

· to accept	a bill	– to take something that someone offers you,
· to reject	– to refuse something that someone offers you,
· to pass	– to accept something that someone offers you officially;

· country elections – выборы местных органов власти;

· patronage – support, especially financial;

· constituency – an area of the country that elects a representative to a Parliament;

· to resent – to feel angry or upset about the situation;

· affluent – having plenty of money so you can buy expensive things;

· no longer – уже не, больше не.

TEXT FOUR

Read the text.

The new bourgeoisie was enormously proud of having fought its way to a position from which it might command power and influence, both at home and far away, in the East and in the West. In the Victorian mind the ideal of strength is a combination of force and firmness. On the one hand, there is enormous admiration for the power of machines, and of the men who make them and run them; for the combative and even belligerent temper with its refusal to recognize defeat or mistakes, and its useful assumption that those it dislikes are knaves or weaklings.

On the other hand, there is the complimentary admiration for “character” – the mastery of the passions, patience and resolutions, the con­trolled energy focused on work.

The Victorian Englishman is armed with self-content and tenacity, he successfully shoulders his way through the troubles of the universe. He is combative and enthusiastic. In this can be traced the lineaments of John Bull who was a national symbol of the time. He is one of the vigorous stock of strong silent people, scornful of logic and intellectual pursuits but wonderfully equipped with obstinate toughness of muscle and toughness of heart, which means persistence, hopeful and even desperate.

“Punch” carried the cartoon which described John Bull as wearing top-boots, a low-crowned hat, and carrying a cudgel in his hand. He is capable of standing his ground against the most vigorous adversary even when it comes to blows. His twinkling or angry eyes, his beetle brows, the entire expression of his countenance, betray marked animal characteristics and the choleric temperament. His forehead is small, his intellect barren; his ideas are few and petty. By way of compensation, he is gifted with good sense and energy, a fund of good temper, loyalty, perseverance, and determination; that firmness of character, by means of which a man gets on in the world.

More exciting than any scientific or executive strength was the sense of personal power. Never before had the captains of industry controlled so many men or so much capital on such a global scale. Furthermore, the struggle for power against personal rivals, domestic and foreign competitors, or rebellious hands, who joined unions and organized strikes, released the most aggressive impulses; the more readily the duties and obligations of the old feudal system were now scrapped, leaving economic life under the new system of laissez-faire.

Of all the criticisms brought against them, the Victorians would have pleaded guilty to only one. They would have defended or excused their optimism, their dogmatism, their appeal to force, their strait-laced morality, but they would have confessed to an unfortunate strain of hypocrisy. To understand the charge, it must be broken down into three specific counts. One, they concealed or suppressed their true convictions and their natural tastes. They said the “right” thing or did the “right” thing: they sacrificed sincerity to propriety. Second, and worse, they pretended to be better than they were. They passed themselves off as being incredibly pious and moral; they talked noble sentiments and lived-quite otherwise. Finally, they refused to look at life candidly. They shut eyes to whatever was ugly or unpleasant and pretended it didn’t exist. Conformity, moral pretension, and evasion-those are the hallmarks of Victorian hypocrisy.

Commentary

· John Bull – Джон Булль, типичный англичанин (по имени простоватого фермера в памфлете Дж. Арбетнота).

· “Punch” – «Панч», еженедельный сатирико-юмористический журнал проконсервативного направления. Основан в 1841 г. Назван по имени героя кукольного пред­ставления «Панч и Джуди» (“Punch and Judy”); издается в Лондоне.

Различные функции слова whatever: Whatever – слово многофункциональное и поэтому трудное для перевода. В научной литературе оно встречается чаще всего в функции союза, а также наречия или прилагательного. Whatever – союз – все, что; что бы ни; какой бы ни. Whatever – наречие – вообще, совсем. Whatever – прилагательное – любой, какой бы ни. They shut eyes to whatever was ugly and unpleasant. – Они закрыли глаза на все то, что было уродливым и неприятным.   through – предл. 1. 1) через, сквозь, по (указывает на пространственные отношения) The burglar came through the window. — Грабитель проник в дом через окно. The River Thames flows through London. — Темза протекает через Лондон. The road goes through the forest. — Дорога проходит по лесу. Minute particles diffused through the atmosphere. — Мельчайшие частицы проникли в воздух. 2) указывает на временные отношения: а) в течение, в продолжение, на протяжении (всего промежутка времени) He won't live through the night. — Он не доживет до утра. The children are too young to sit through a long concert. — Дети еще слишком малы, чтобы высидеть длинный концерт. All through his reign — в течение всего срока его правления Personality, that's what counts, that's what keeps a relationship going through the years. — Личность - вот что имеет значение, вот что поддерживает отношения на протяжении многих лет. б) по; вплоть до (какого-л. определенного времени) From Monday through Friday — с понедельника по пятницу Syn: up to 3) в, через (в сочетаниях, имеющих переносное значение) He went through many hardships. — Он прошел через много трудностей. He got through the examinations. — Он выдержал экзамены. I hadn't told anyone everything that was running through my mind about what might happen in London. — Я никому не стал рассказывать всего того, что вертелось у меня в голове по поводу возможного развития событий в Лондоне. 4) через (посредство) (указывает на средство достижения чего-л.) To speak through an interpreter — говорить через переводчика You can't get a ticket through official channels. — Обычным способом билет достать невозможно. Syn: by means of , by means. 5) от(указывает на источник) I learnt of the position through a newspaper advertisement. — Я узнал об этой вакансии из рекламы в газете. Syn: from. 6) по причине, вследствие, из-за, благодаря (указывает на причину) The accident happened through no fault of yours. — Эта авария произошла не по вашей вине. Syn: owing to. 2. (нареч.) 1) насквозь; совершенно Soaked through — насквозь промокший. Syn: completely , absolutely , quite. 2) от начала до конца; (в сочетании с глаголами передается приставками пере-, про-) Read the book through carefully. — Прочитайте книгу внимательно от начала до конца. Syn: throughout. Be through – заканчивать. Get through – пройти через что-то. Put through - выполнить, закончить (работу). Through and through - совершенно, насквозь, до конца, во всех отношениях 3. прил. 1) беспересадочный, прямой. Through train — прямой поезд. Through passenger — пассажир, путешествующий прямым поездом. Through ticket — билет на поезд прямого сообщения. Through traffic - сквозное движение; прямое сообщение. Syn: direct. 2) беспрепятственный, свободный. A through road — свободный путь. Syn: unhampered , unhindered. both...and как..., так и...; и... и...; и к тому же He speaks both English and French. — Он говорит и по-английски, и по-французски. He is both tired and hungry. — Он устал и к тому же голоден. by way of 1) ради, с целью 2) в виде, в качестве   means 1) как средство; способ, метод, методика; возможность effective means — эффективный способ fair means — справедливый способ foul means — грязный способ means to an end — средства достижения цели the means and instruments of production — орудия и средства производства The end does not justify the means. — Цель не оправдывает средства. by all means – 1) любым способом 2) любой ценой, во что бы то ни стало 3) конечно, пожалуйста by any means – каким бы то ни было образом; любым способом by means of – посредством by no means – 1) никоим образом не; ни в коем случае не, 2) нисколько не, отнюдь не Syn: method , device , mode , manner , modus , resource , technique , wise 2) состояние, средства a man of means — человек со средствами, состоятельный человек means of subsistence — средства к существованию means test — проверка нуждаемости Syn: estate , goods , wealth , property 3) материальные ценности, богатства; сокровища 4) изобилие means of hair — пышные волосы means of experience — богатейший опыт Syn: abundance , plenty 5) благосостояние   only 1. прил. 1) а) одинокий б) единственный an only child — единственный ребенок one and only — один единственный; уникальный 2) бесподобный, несравненный, неподражаемый She is not the only one – она не исключение I was the only one there – Кроме меня там никого не было He was the only one to object – Он один возражал Only women attended the meeting – На заседании были одни/только женщины only a month ago – не далее как месяц назад the only thing is, I can't afford it - дело только/лишь в том, что мне это не по средствам the only thing for 'flu is to go to bed – против гриппа есть только/лишь одно средство – отлежаться (в постели) It's the only way to go — Лучше ничего не придумаешь 2. нареч. 1) а) только, просто if only — если бы только only just — только что only not — чуть не, едва не, почти if only you knew – если бы вы только знали I am only too pleased - я очень рад engine started, only to stop again – мотор завелся, но тут же заглох the soup was only warm – суп был еще теплый I've only got one pair of hands, you know! — Не могу же я разорваться, в самом деле! б) исключительно; единственно 2) а) недавно, только что He has only just talked to her. — Он буквально только что поговорил с ней. б) всего лишь only last week — лишь на прошлой неделе only not - чуть не, едва не, почти 3. союз 1) а) но You may leave, only come back early. — Вы можете идти, но возвращайтесь пораньше. I would go myself, only I'm tired – я пошел бы сам, но я устал б) однако, тем не менее 2) если не   BUT But – n. (But me) no buts - никаких "но"; без всяких "но". adv. (only) We can but try - (всего лишь); Попытка – не пытка. prep. (except) No one but me – никто, кроме меня; She is anything but beautiful – она далеко не красавица; He all but failed – он только что не провалился; Nothing remains but to thank her – остается только поблагодарить её; He had no choice but to go there – ему не оставалось ничего другого, кроме как пойти туда; Not a day passes but there is some trouble – не проходит и дня без неприятностей; Next door but one – через одну дверь; The last but one – Предпоследний; But for me he would have stayed – если бы не я, он бы остался She would have fallen but that I caught her –она бы упала, если бы я не подхватил её He cannot but agree – ему остается только согласиться I do not doubt but that he is honest – я не сомневаюсь, в его честности I cannot help but think… – я не могу не думать, что conj. but yet, then, again – но все же, но опять таки otherwiseнареч. 1. 1) иначе, иным способом; иным образом; по-другому God saw otherwise. — Бог видел по-другому. 2) в других отношениях; во всем остальном I have otherwise no reason to suspect them. — В других отношениях у меня не было поводов их подозревать. 3) или же, в противном случае, иначе; в других обстоятельствах I went at once; otherwise I should have missed him. — Я сразу же ушел. Иначе я пропустил бы его. do what I tell you, otherwise you'll be sorry — Делай, что я тебе говорю, или же ты пожалеешь. I might otherwise have left. — В других обстоятельствах я бы ушел.

Glossary

· strait-laced morality – жесткий кодекс моральных правил, не допускающий ни­каких отступлений.

· combative – ready and willing to fight or argue;

· belligerent – unfriendly and unpleasant;;

· assumption – something that you think is true although you have no proof;

· knave – dishonest boy or man;

· tenacity – determined to do something;

· lineaments – a typical quality;

· system of laissez-fair – невмешательство.