Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns this (these), that (those), same, such point out the person or thing that is meant and separate it from others.

The demonstrative pronouns this and that have two number forms: this — these, that — those. This/these indi­cate the one or more people or things that is nearer in time, space or thought while that/those refer to the one or more people or things that are further away in time, space, thought, etc. Compare: I'm surprised you like that picture; I prefer this one. You look in this box and I'll look in that one. You check these figures and I'll check

those ones.

This/these and that/those are used instead of adjec­tives and may function as subjects, predicatives, objects and attributes. For example: This has been the best year in the company's history, (subject) Who was that I saw you with last night? (predicative) Who told you that? The cost of the air fare is higher than that of the rail fare, (object) Wait until you've heard this story, (attribute)

The pronoun such is both noun- and adjective-sub­stitute used as subject, predicative, and attribute: We pre-

dieted their victory and such was the result, (subject) The force of the explosion was such that it blew out all the win­dows, (predicative) Such people as him shouldn't be allowed in here, (attribute)

The pronoun same usually performs the attributive function though it may be used as subject, predicative, object and adverbial modifier. It is always used with the definite article. For example: You've made the same mis-take as last time. My father sits in the same chair every evening,(attribute) You are wrong.— The same can be said about you. (subject) These programmes are too much the same. They may look the same, but they really quite different, (predicative) They always say the same, (object) They feel the same about this question as I do. These two words are pronounced differently but they are spelt the same, (adverbial modifier)

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to form special questions. They are: who, whose, what, which.

Who is a noun-substitute, whose is always used instead of adjectives, what and which may function as both noun- and adjective-substitutes

The interrogative pronoun who has the category of Case which is constituted by the two categorial forms: the Nominative case — who and the Objective case — whom Who can be used in the function of both subject and object. For example: Who is that woman over there? Who did you stay with? (subject) Whom did you see? (object)

Connective pronouns

Connective pronouns such as who, whose, which, what, that are used to connect a relative clause to the rest of the sentence thus performing a syncategorematic function. Besides, they have a syntactic function of their own — that of subject, object, attribute, etc. in the clause they introduce. For example: A postman is a man who/ that delivers letters,(subject) This is the man whose house was burned down, (attribute) This is the book that/which I told you about, (object)

Depending on the type of a clause they are linked to connectives are divided into relative — who, whose, which and that, and conjunctive pronouns — who, what, which.

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce attributive clauses: who,

Whose, whom, which, that.

Who and whose are used in reference to human beings or animals. Syntactically who is subject, its case form whom is object, and whose is attribute: Do you know the people who live there? Whom did you see? We never discovered whose money it was.

Which is used to refer to both people and things, in a clause it being subject, object, or adverbial modifier. Compare: She said she had been waiting for an hour, which was true, (subject) / can't find the book which you gave me last week, (object) She may have missed her train, in which case she won't arrive for another hour. (adverbial modifier)

That may refer to both persons and things and function as both subject or object: Did you see the letter that came today? He is the greatest man that's ever lived. (subject) Did you get the book that I sent you? (object)

Note if a relative pronoun describes a noun with a preposition, the latter is usually placed at the end of the sentence. For example: This is the book which I told you about.

Conjunctive pronouns

Conjunctive pronouns who, what, which introduce subordinate subject, predicative and object clauses being either subject, predicative or object in the clause. For example. / didn't know who he was. (subject) The twins look so alike that I can't tell which is which, (subject, predicative) What made her cry he could never make out. (subject) We are very grateful for what you did. (object)

Indefinite pronouns

The indefinite pronouns some, any, somebody, any­body, someone, anyone, something, anything, one point out some person or thing indefinitely.

Somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything and one are noun-substitutes, some and any may function as both noun- and adjective-substitutes.

Somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, and anything are always singular and take a singular verb: There is somebody at the door. Is there anyone at home?

Some and any may denote both singular and plural persons and objects. If they are used to determine or substitute uncountable nouns they take a verb in the singular: There is some milk in the bottle. Is there any butter in the fridge? — Yes, there is some.

If some and any determine or substitute countables they take a verb in the plural. For example: There are some flowers in Mr White's garden. There aren't any flowers in Mr Brown's garden. Are there any trees in his garden ? Yes, there are some.

Some, somebody, someone, something are generally used in positive sentences while any, anybody, anyone, anything in negative and interrogative sentences: There are some apples on the table. — There aren't any apples on the table. — Are there any apples on the table? There is someone in the house. — There isn't anyone in the hou­se. — Is there anyone in the house?

However some/someone/something can be used in questions especially when the positive answer is expected ' or when some things are offered or asked for. For example: What's wrong with your eye? Have you got something in it? Will someone help me? Would you like some coffee? Can I have some tea?

Any/anyone/anything can be used in positive senten­ces in i/-clauses: If any letters arrive for me, I'd like them to be sent to this address. If anyone has questions, I'm ready to answer them. If you need anything, just ask.

Any/anyone/anything may be used in positive senten­ces in the meaning «every/any person, all people/any ob­ject, act, event». For example: Any child would know that. Come and see me any time you want. Anyone can cook — it's easy. Anything will do to keep the door open.

The pronouns some, any, somebody, anybody, some­one, anyone, something, anything may function as subject, predicative and object. For instance: Some of these books are useful. In his situation anything may happen. Anybody will tell you where the bus stop is. (subject) Was she anybody before her marriage? He is somebody in the Edu­cation Department, (predicative) Scotland has some of the finest scenery in the world. I hear he has broken an arm or something. You can tell him anything you like, (object)

The pronouns some, any may also function as attri­bute in a sentence: All work is not dull, some work is plea­sant. Please give me some milk. We haven't any tea. Have you any sugar?

The pronoun one is used instead of a noun or noun phrase that describes a single thing or person and thus has number distinctions: one — ones: I have several books: which one/which ones would you like to borrow?

One can be determined by the definite article and demonstrative pronouns. For example: Which book do you want? — The one that's lying on the table. Those ones you gave me yesterday were most interesting.

One can be used with the indefinite article when attributed by an adjective: This dress is a bit small — have you got a slightly bigger one?

In this meaning one may function as subject, predi­cative, and object. For example: Which picture do you like? — The one on the right seems attrative. (subject) He buys German cars rather than British ones, (object) The officer is the one who gives orders, (predicative)

One is often used to indicate a contrast extressed or implied with the other, or another, or other(s). The twins

are so much alike that it is difficult for strangers to tell the one from the other.

When one is used in the meaning «any person, you» it has case distinctions. One functions as subject, its possessive form one's is used attributively. For example: One should do one's duty, (compare with the American variant: One has to do his duty.}

One has its reflexive form oneself which is used as an object: One can't enjoy oneself if one is too tired, (compa­re with the American variant: One can't enjoy oneself if he is too tired.}

Oneself may function as a strong form of one: To do something oneself is often easier than getting someone else to do it.

One can be used as an adjective-substitute in the meaning «some» and function as an attribute: Come again one day soon.

Defining pronouns

The defining pronouns are: all, each, both, either, every, everybody, everyone, everything, other, another.

All or all of can be used before nouns with the definite article or the demonstrative pronouns: All (of) the students are coming to the party. All her friends are leaving for London. All, not all of is used before nouns without any article: All students hate exams. All of may be used before personal pronouns: I'd like all of you to come. All can be used after a pronoun: They all like parties. I'd like you all to come.

All is singular with uncountable nouns and is plu­ral with plural nouns. Compare: All (of) the money is spent. — All (of) the people have gone.

All may function as subject, predicative, object, and attribute. For example: We invited many people but not all of them came, (subject) That is all. (predicative) I brought all of them. He gave all he had. (object) All children like toys, (attribute)

Each is used to denote every single one of two or more things or people considered separately: She had a cut on each foot/each of her feet. Each is used either sepa­rately, as a noun-substitute, or with nouns without any article: Each has a lot of friends. Each student has a lot of friends.

Each of is usually used with nouns determined by the definite article or personal pronouns. For example: Each of her children goes to a different school. Each of the children answered the teacher's question.

Each is usually singular and takes a singular verb, except after a plural subject or when each of is followed by a plural noun. Compare: Each has his own room. — They each have their own room. Each of the young philo­logists of the department is/are specializing in a different subject.

Each can be used after the pronoun: They each want to do something different.

In the sentence each/each of functions as subject, object, and attribute. For example: Each has his own opi­nion. Each of the students came to the party, (subject) He paid a dollar each, (object) He was sitting with a child on each side of him. (attribute).

As distinct from each/each of, both/both of arc used for two things taken together. For example: Both children go to the same school.

Both/both of can be used with the definite article and demonstrative pronouns: / like both (of) the paintings. Both (of) their children are grown up.

Both, not both of, can be used before nouns without any article or pronoun: I like both paintings.

Both may be used after a noun or pronoun it is attributed to: She and her husband both like dancing.

Both/both of may function as subject, object, and at­tribute. For example: Both seemed to be interested in the subject. Both of them were interested in the subject, (sub­ject) / like them both. He continued talking to both, (ob­ject) Both sides are keen to reach an agreement. (attribute)

Either is used to denote one or the other of the two objects or living beings. It is often synonymous to each and both. Compare: He sat in the car with a policeman on either side of him. — He sat in the car with a policeman on each side of him. — He sat in the car with policemen on both sides. Either of them will be satisfactory. — Each of them will be satisfactory. — Both will be satisfactory.

But in the negative either is the only possible way of expression: She's lived in Manchester and Liverpool, but doesn 't like either city very much.

Either is usually used with a singular noun but either of may be followed by a plural noun and then takes a singular verb in formal writing: Is either of the factories in operation yet? But in speech and informal writing a plural verb is usually used: Are either of the teams playing this week?

In the sentence either usually functions as an attri­bute but either of may be subject and object: Take either half. In either event you will benefit. Either of them will be present, (subject) There is coffee or tea — you can have either. Take either of these books, (object)

Every points to the whole as compared with each which is directed to the object or individual. Compare: Each pupil was given a different book by the teacher. — Every boy ran in the race.

Every is never used with of or after a subject like each.

Every is always used with a singular noun, being an attribute in the sentence: Every boy in the class passed the examination. He enjoyed every minute of his holiday.

Everybody, everyone can only be used of people and are never followed by of. They always take a singular verb and may function as subject and object. For example: If everyone is ready, we'll begin, (subject) They gave a prize to everyone who passed the examination, (object)

Everyone (or everybody) should not be confused with every one that means «each person or thing» and is often followed by of. Compare: Everyone in the class passed the exam. — There are 20 students and every one passed:

Everything is used with a singular verb and may function as subject, object, and predicative in the senten­ce. For example: Everything is ready for the party, (sub­ject) This shop sells everything needed for camping, (ob­ject) Money is everything to him. Beauty is not everything. (predicative)

Other denotes the second of two and may substitute both nouns and adjectives. In this meaning other is followed by a singular noun with the definite article and

takes a singular verb. For example: The twins are so much alike that people find it difficult to know (the) one from the other. The post office is on the other side of the street. One of them is mine, the other is my sister's.

Other may be used to point out an additional person or thing. In this meaning as a noun-substitute it has two numbers. As an adjective-substitute it is followed by a plural noun and takes a plural verb. For example: Six of the books are mine, the others are John's. I saw John with some other boys. Where are the other boys?

As a noun-substitute other may function as a subject and object while as an adjective-substitute it is used attri­butively. For example: One of the twins lives in London, the other — is in York, (subject) / know one of them but I've never met with the other, (object) They live on the other bank of the river, (attribute)

Another points to one more person or thing of the kind. It is normally used as an adjective-substitute before a singular noun, thus being an attribute: Will you have another cup of tea? We can do that another time.

However, sometimes another may be used as attribute with a plural noun, or without any noun in the function of object: In another two weeks we'll be on holiday. I don't like this dress, show me another (one).

Negative pronouns

The negative pronouns no, none, nobody, no one, nothing, neither are closely connected with the indefinite and defining pronouns. Most of the indefinite pronouns correlate with the negative pronouns: some — no, none,

something — nothing, none, somebody, someone, one — nobody, no one, none.

Some defining pronouns are the opposites of the negative pronouns: everyhing — nothing, all, everybody, every, each — no, none, nobody, both, either — neither.

No is used only before a noun as an adjective-sub­stitute in the function of attribute: There is no telephone in our house. He is no gentleman.

None is used as a noun-substitute and takes a sin­gular verb: I'm afraid we can't have coffee — there's none left. When none is followed by of it may take either a sin­gular or plural verb: There are faults from which none of us is/are free. None of them has/have come back yet. In the sentence none is either subject or object. For example: None of this money is mine, (subject) They chose none but the best, (object)

The negative pronouns nobody and no-one are noun-substitutes and refer to human beings only. They correlate with somebody, someone and all, every, each and every­body. They are mostly used as subjects and objects: Nobody could find their luggage. No-one likes to be cri­ticized, (subject) We saw nobody we knew, (object)

Nothing is a noun-substitute that refers to things. It is opposed to something and everything. In the sentence it is used as subject, predicative and object. For example: Nothing I could say had any influence on her. (subject) He's had nothing to eat yet. (object) She's nothing to me. (predicative)

The negative pronoun neither is the opposite of either and both. It can be used as both a noun- and adjective-substitute. As a noun-substitute it is used with of

before a plural noun and takes a singular verb: Neither of the statements is true.

In the sentence neither of functons as subject and object: Neither of them was happy, (subject) / like neither of them, (object)

As an adjective-substitute neither takes a singular noun, functioning as an attribute: Neither neither state­ment is true. I can agree in neither case.

Ш EXERCISES

/. Point out the pronouns in the following extracts and define the class each belongs to:

a)Although we agree by and large about a Standard

English usage in terms of vocabulary and grammar, in

both the written and the spoken forms of the language,

there is no such general agreement about a standard of

pronunciation. We all have our own opinions as to what is

the best pronunciation of English, and many people feel

sufficiently concerned to write letters to the newspapers

on the subject. It has been said that a man's accent has

more significance in this country than anywhere in the

world. However regrettable it may be, there is no denying

that some kinds of English speech carry a certain prestige,

whereas others may prove a positive disadvantage to the

user.

b) Anyone who knows language well will acknow­ledge that there is no such thing as a true synonym. That is, there are words that can be substituted for other words, but they almost never have exactly the same meaning in the same context.

c) Of all accents of English, the one which has been most fully described is English Recieved Pronunciation, known as RP. This, however, is not a regional accent but a social one. It is spoken throughout England by certain educated families, and kept alive in such private insti­tutions as the Public Schools.

d) This makes things much more difficult for any linguist who wishes to describe a particular variety — the more heterogeneous is its language. For many years the linguist's reaction to this complexity was generally to ignore it — in two rather different ways.

e) Such language is hardly informative to those who use it, but it plainly has an important role in fostering a sense of identity — in this case, among those who share the same political views. Many social situations display language which unites rather than informs...

2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:

1.We've found the money. 2. I've bought the tickets. 3. Put the chairs there. 4. The men have come. 5. The cars have been stolen. 6. We'll need the maps. 7. He sent the telegrams. 8. She's cooked the meal. 9. She did the work. 10. I like the others.

3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:

1. Никто не возражает, если я закурю? 2. Вы не хотите что-нибудь выпить — чай или кофе? 3. Кто звонит в дверь? 4. Налейте мне молока, пожалуйста. 5. Если кто-нибудь хочет задать вопрос, поднимите руку. 6. Вы оставили дверь открытой. Любой мог войти. 7. Он ушел, никому ничего не сказав. 8. В ее внешности есть что-то необычное. 9. Вы не могли бы дать мне некоторую информацию по использованию этих приборов? 10. Ты можеть выбрать ему в подарок все, что хочешь. Он будет рад всему. 11. Нет ли здесь поблизости почты? 12. Приходите в любое время. 13. Купи телефонный справочник, если тебе попадется.

14. Она споет любую песню, которую пожелаешь.

15. Кто-то разлил молоко и не сознается. 16. Она купила новые туфли, а старые выбросила.

4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:

1. Он может писать обеими руками/любой ру­кой. 2. Вы можете сесть на любой из двух автобусов. 3. В той стране вы сможете говорить на обоих язы­ках/на любом из этих двух языков. 4. Я был бы рад посмотреть оба фильма/любой из этих двух фильмов. 5. Можно войти через любую дверь. 6. В этом случае можно употребить оба термина/любой из двух тер­минов.

5. Translate into English using both of/neither of/ either of:

1. Вы оба говорите по-английски? 2. Я пригла­сил обеих сестер в гости, но ни одна не пришла.

3. Они обе так устали за день, что легли спать, не поужинав. 4. Все рестораны, которые мы посещали, были недорогими. 5. Мы могли бы зайти в любой из этих двух магазинов. 6. Никто из детей не хотел ло­житься спать. 7. Мы оба продолжали спорить. 8. Вы можете выбрать любой из этих подарков.

6. Change the following sentences using all to every and translate both variants into Russian:

1. All countries have problems. 2. I've read all the books on that list. 3. We've considered all the possibilities.

4. All the doors must be closed. 5. I've looked in all the drawers. 6. All the windows have been broken. 7. All questions must be answered. 8. Have you done all the exercises? 9. Complete all the sections. 10. All the bottles were empty.

7. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns each and every:

1. У всех студентов есть зачетная книжка (stu­dent's card). 2. Все страницы пронумерованы. 3. В каждом номере есть ванна. 4. У каждого ученика есть письменный стол. 5. Каждый студент должен напи­сать сочинение. 6. На каждой книге должен стоять номер. 7. Раздайте всем анкеты для заполнения.

8. Всем детям вручили подарки. 9. Положите все книги на свои места.

8. Translate into English using all, everything or everyone/everybody:

1. Я знаю всех на своей улице. 2. Она пользуется большим успехом. Ее все любят. 3. Все были очень добры к нам и сделали все, чтобы нам было хорошо. 4. У каждого есть свои недостатки. 5. Почему он постоянно думает о деньгах? Деньги — еще не все. 6. Она ничего не делает дома. Все делает ее муж.

9. Give two English variants of the following sentences using no and any:

1. У меня нет времени. 2. У него нет братьев и сестер. 3. Ты ничего не съел на завтрак. 4. В этом нет ничего хорошего. 5. Они не поймали ни одной рыбы. 6. Нет надежды, что опыт закончится успешно. 7. В кассе нет билетов. 8. Нам не задавали вопросов. 9. Я не желаю никакого вмешательства в мои дела. 10. Он не дал никаких объяснений.

10. Translate into English using no. none, no-one, nobody, nothing:

1. Никто не навестил меня, когда я был в боль­нице. 2. Ни одна из систем государственного управ­ления не является совершенной. 3. Среди этих книг нет ни одной моей. 4. Я не нашел ни одной ошибки в его сочинении. 5. Он никому не рассказывал о

своих планах. 6. Мне никто не звонил? 7. Никто в классе не выполнил домашнего задания. 8. В это время все магазины закрыты. 9. Мне никто ничего не рассказывает. 10. Среди тех, с кем мне пришлось общаться, не было ни одного русского.

11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:

1. Ты слышал, что я сказал? 2. Все, что он ска­зал, было правдой. 3. Скажи мне, что ты хочешь и я постараюсь тебе помочь. 4. Она позволяет детям де­лать все, что они захотят. 5. Почему ты всегда обви­няешь меня во всем плохом, что случается с тобой? 6. Я сделаю все, что смогу. 7. Я не могу одолжить тебе денег. Все, что у меня есть, необходимо мне самому. 8. Я не согласен с тем, что вы сейчас сказали. 9. Это самая отвратительная сцена, которую я когда-либо видел. 10. Я нашел ключи, которые вы потеряли.

12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:

1. Он сильно поранился при падении. 2. Пожи­лые люди часто разговаривают сами с собой. 3. Я хочу поговорить с самим директором, а не с его сек­ретарем. 4. Каждый должен уметь защищаться. 5. Она купила себе машину. 6. Она сама рассказала мне эту историю. 7. Она давно живет самостоятельно. 8. Мы увидели себя по телевидению. 9. Они сами построили себе дом. 10. Они отлично провели время в гостях. 11. Дети выполнили эту сложную работу самостоя­тельно. 12. Ты поранишься, если будешь играть с

ножницами. 13. Вы сами так сказали. 14. Я тебя прощаю. Ты был не в себе, когда высказывал все эти обвинения. 15. Она любила смотреться в зеркало.

13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:

1. Есть ли в вашей библиотеке книги по сельс­кому хозяйству? Я хотел бы взять одну. 2. У нас есть несколько фильмов на этот сюжет. Который вы хо­тите посмотреть? 3. Какой журнал вам дать? — Тот который лежит на столе. 4. Директор — это человек, управляющий компанией, фирмой или банком. 5. При необходимости можно воспользоваться сло­варем. 6. Не всегда можно получить то, что хочется.

7. Невозможно радоваться жизни, если очень устал.

8. Часто проще сделать что-либо самому, чем заста­вить кого-нибудь. 9. В теннис нельзя играть одному. 10. Нужно знать свои права и не забывать про обя­занности.

CHAPTER V

Numeral

5.1. Definition

The numeral is a part of speech which denotes quan­tity or order of persons and things and thus used in coun­ting and measuring. For example: one, ten, hundred, first, tenth, twentieth, etc.

5.2. Classes of numerals

According to their function numerals are divided into cardinals (cardinal numerals) and ordinals (ordinal numerals).

Cardinals form a class of numerals which show quantity rather than order, answering the question how many? : one, two, three, four, etc.

Ordinals are numerals that show order rather than quantity, answering the question which? : first, second, third, fourth, etc.

5.3. Morphological structure of numbers

According to their morphological structure numerals can be classified as 1) simple, 2) derivative, 3) compound.

Simple numerals are cardinals from zero to twelve, hundred, million, thousand, billion, etc. and such ordinals as first, second, third.

Derivative numerals are formed by means of the suffixes -teen and -ty. The suffix -teen is typical of the cardinals from thirteen to nineteen while the suffix -ty is characteristic of tens from twenty to ninety.

Compound numerals include: 1) cardinals from twen­ty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc, 2) their corresponding ordinals: twenty-first, thirty-second, forty-fourth and so on, 3) fractional numerals or fractions in which the numerator is a cardinal and the denominator is an ordinal: two-sixths, three-tenths. This group consists of substantivized numerals. (See 5.4.3.}

Usage

Words of this class can be used as: 1) numerals pro­per, 2) pronouns or noun-substitutes, and 3) substantivized numerals.

Numerals proper

Numerals proper — cardinals and ordinals are nor­mally used in preposition to nouns and thus in a sentence function as attributes. For example: / have two brothers and one sister. They lent me three thousand dollars. His first name is Peter. My second language is French.

In British grammar they are regarded as. determiners while in American grammar — as adjectives. (See 4.1.}

Cardinals may occur as part of adverbial modifiers while ordinals — as part of predicate. Compare: They live two hundred miles away, (adverbial modifier) Who is the first to answer the question? (predicative)

Cardinals may enter compound nouns such as a two-year absence, a three-week holiday, a three-month course, etc.

5.4.2. Noun-substitutes

Cardinals can be often used on their own as noun-substitutes or pronouns, in a sentence being eithei subject or object. For example: We invited a lot of people but only twelve came/only twelve of them came, (subject) She saw four of them laughing at her. (object)

Besides, as noun-substitutes cardinals can realize all other possible syntactic functions when they are used to show: 1) the process of calculation by numbers: Two by two is four. (Two by two is subject, four — predicative) Fifteen divided by three is five. (Fifteen is subject, three is attribute, five — predicative) 2) dates — He was born in 1749. (in the year of 1749, pronounced seventeen forty ni­ne — adverbial modifier); 3) time — We left at 4.25p.m. (pronounced four twenty five — adverbial modifier);

4) age — He is thirty seven. (37 years old — predicative);

5) temperature — The temperature rose to plus thirty. (=+30 degrees — adverbial modifier); 6) price — It cost six eighty-five. (=6 pounds 85 pence or 6 dollars 85 cents — predicative); 7) the score in a game — Becker won the first set six-three. (=by six games to three: 6—3 — ad­verbial modifier).

5.4.3. Substantivized numerals

All the cardinal and ordinal numerals are easily sub­stantivized and thus acquire some noimal characteristics.

When cardinals take the nounal form they are usually used in the plural: Three twos make six. The teacher divided us into fours. You can buy cigarettes in tens or twenties. I have been there hundreds of times. There were thousands/millions of people there.

Yet sometimes, especially with reference to card games or sports such as cricket or rowing, substantivized numerals may occur in the singular form with either the indefinite or definite article. For example: The Oxford eight is/are using a new lightweight boat. This shirt is a fourty-two. (=size 42) Will you make up a four for a game of cards? He hit a four. That' easily a six, (in cricket a hit worth four or six runs)

Substantivized ordinal numerals can be used both in singular and plural. The plural usually occurs as the denominator in fractions. For example: Suddenly there was a cry, then a second, and a third. Water takes up three-fourths of our planet's surface.

Ш EXERCISES

1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:

1. How many days are there in a year?

2. How many days are there in February, March, and April?

3. How many men are there in a football team?

4. How many grams are there in a kilogram?

5. How many new pence are there in a pound?

6. How many hours are there in a day?

2. Translate into English using cardinals:

1. Вы найдете этот рассказ на странице 15. 2. Он только что закончил чтение третьего тома. 3. Вам нужен 73-й автобус. 4. Он живет по адресу: Парковая улица, дом 65. 5. Ваши студенты в комнате 307.

6. Наш поезд отходит с платформы 9.7. Рейс 562 за­держивается. 8. Откройте раздел 24.

3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:

1. Я говорила ему об этом миллион раз. 2. Я сталкивался с этой проблемой десятки раз. 3. В результате взрыва на заводе погибли сотни людей. 4. Современный компьютер способен выполнять тысячи операций за секунды. 5. По предположениям некоторых ученых человек существует уже несколько миллионов лет. 6. По решению суда компании приш­лось заплатить штраф в размере миллиона долларов.

7. В Англии дюжина яиц стоит 80 пенсов, а в Рос­сии — 6 тысяч рублей. 8. Этот городок расположен в двустах милях к северу от Лондона. 9. Во время праздника на стадионе находились тысячи людей. 10. Глубина Марианской впадины в Тихом океане достигает 11 тысяч метров.

4. Translate into English using ordinals:

10-е января, 2-е февраля, 8-е марта, 1-е апреля, 9-е мая, 12-е июня, 14-е июля, 24-е августа, 19-е сентября, 30-е октября, 16-е ноября, 25-е декабря.

5. Translate into English using ordinals:

Генрих VIII, Людовик XIV, Георг V, Елизаве­та II, Ричард III, Чарльз I Екатерина II, Петр I.

6. Translate into English using ordinals:

1. Это произошло уже во второй раз. 2. Он живет на 13-м этаже. 3. Это уже 5-й директор компании за последние 2 года. 4. Вы — 20-й студент, который за­дает этот вопрос. 5. Она сдала экзамен с первого ра­за. 6. Их семья достаточно состоятельна, чтобы ку­пить вторую машину. 7. В состязаниях по бегу этот спортсмен пришел третьим. 8. Вторая мировая война началась 2-го сентября 1939 года. 9. Время называют четвертым измерением. 10. Он бывает на работе раз в 3 дня.

7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:

1. Вместимость чайной ложки составляет 1/3 столовой ложки. 2. 1 американский галлон равен 3.785 литра. 3. 1 американская пинта приблизительно составляет 1/5 галлона. 4. 1 фут составляет 1/3 ярда. 5. 1 дюйм равен 1/12 фута.

8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:

a) Because of the movements of individual stars, the stellar configurations we call constellations are conti­nuously changung their shape. 50.000 years from now we

would find it difficult to recognize Orion or the Big Dipper. But from year to year the changes are not noticeable. Linguistic change is also slow, in human, if not astronomical, terms. If we were to turn on a radio and miraculously recieve a broadcast in our native language from the year 3000, we would probably think we had tuned in some foreign-language station.

b) The following example from Caedmon's Hymn in Old English spoken and written in the period between A.D. 658and 680will reveal why it must be studied as a «foreign» language.

c) Anthropologists think that man has existed for at least 1.000.000 years, and perhaps for as long as 6.000.000 years. But the earliest deciphered written re­cords are barely 6.000 years old, dating from the writings of the Sumerians of 4000 BC.

d) Now, though, less than 500 years later, English is used by at least some of the people in almost every country in the world. English is the native language of about 250.000.000 people (mostly citizens of Australia, Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand and United States). About 50.000.000 others are fluent in English as a second language, and 100.000.000 or more others understand or can use English to some extent.

CHAPTER VI

Verb

6.1. Definition

The verb is a part of speech which includes words or groups of words denoting an action, or state.

For example: He read a book. They usually have breakfast at 9 o'clock a.m. She took off her coat. They took part in the discussion, (action) She feels hungry. (state)

6.2. Morphological structure of verbs

According to their morphological structure verbs may be classified into 1) simple, 2) derivative, 3) com­pound and 4) composite or multi-word.

Simple verbs consist of a root-stem only: bring, cut, put, take, use, etc.

Derivative verbs are formed from nouns, adjectives and verbs by means of suffixes and prefixes: standardize < standard, finalize < final, regulate < regular, enlarge < large', rewrite < write, disclose < close.

The verb-forming suffixes are:

-ize/-ise: containerize, modernize, hospitalize,

-fy-ify. purify, terrify., modify, codify.

-ate: activate, separate, appreciate.

The verb-forming prefixes are: