Give the summary of the text using the key terms

TYPES OF INCIDENTS

Read the following words and word combinations and use them for understanding and translation of the text:

threat- угроза

violation- нарушение

disruption- прерывание

usurpation— захват, неправомерное присвоение

ubiquitous- повсеместный

snooping- перехват

wiretapping— перехват при подключении к линии связи

man-in-the-middle attack— атака через посредника

recipient- получатель

intermediary- посредник

masquerading— выдача себя за другое лицо

spoofing- подмена

to lure- заманивать

repudiation- опровержение

pending- отложенный

probe- зонд

packet sniffer— перехватчик пакетов

downtime— нерабочее время, простой

Threats

A threat is a potential violation of security. The violation need not actually occur for there to be a threat. The fact that the violation might occur means that those actions that could cause it to occur must be guarded against (or prepared for). Those actions are called attacks.

Threats can be divided into four broad classes: disclosure, or unauthorized access to information; deception, or acceptance of false data; disruption, or interruption or prevention of correct operation; and usurpation, or unauthorized control of some part of a system. These four broad classes encompass many common threats. Since the threats are ubiquitous, an introductory discussion of each one will present issues that recur throughout the study of computer security.

Snooping, the unauthorized interception of information, is a form of disclosure. It is passive, suggesting simply that some entity is listening to (or reading) communications or browsing through files or system information. Wiretapping, or passive wiretapping, is a form of snooping in which a network is monitored.

Modification or alteration, an unauthorized change of information. Active wiretapping is a form of modification in which data moving across a network is altered; the term "active" distinguishes it from snooping ("passive" wiretapping). An example is the man-in-the-middle attack, in which an intruder reads messages from the sender and sends (possibly modified) versions to the recipient, in hopes that the recipient and sender will not realize the presence of the intermediary.

Masquerading or spoofing, an impersonation of one entity by another. It lures a victim into believing that the entity with which it is communicating is a different entity. This may be a passive attack (in which the user does not attempt to authenticate the recipient, but merely accesses it), but it is usually an active attack (in which the masquerader issues responses to mislead the user about its identity). It is often used to usurp control of a system by an attacker impersonating an authorized manager or controller.

Repudiation of origin, a false denial that an entity sent (or created) something. Suppose a customer sends a letter to a vendor agreeing to pay a large amount of money for a product. The vendor ships the product and then demands payment. The customer denies having ordered the product and by law is therefore entitled to keep the unsolicited shipment without payment. The customer has repudiated the origin of the letter. If the vendor cannot prove that the letter came from the customer, the attack succeeds.

Delay, a temporary inhibition of a service. Typically, delivery of a message or service requires some time t; if an attacker can force the delivery to take more than time t, the attacker has successfully delayed delivery. This requires manipulation of system control structures, such as network components or server components, and hence is a form of usurpation.

Denial-of-service

The goal of denial-of-service attacks is not to gain unauthorized access to machines or data, but to prevent legitimate users of a service from using it. A denial-of-service attack can come in many forms. Attackers may "flood" a network with large volumes of data or deliberately consume a scarce or limited resource, such as process control blocks or pending network connections. They may also disrupt physical components of the network or manipulate data in transit, including encrypted data.

Attacks

An attempt to breach system security may not be deliberate; it may be the product of environmental characteristics rather than specific actions of an attacker. Incidents can be broadly classified into several kinds: the probe, scan, account compromise, root compromise, packet sniffer, denial of service, exploitation of trust, malicious code, and Internet infrastructure attacks.

Probe

A probe is characterized by unusual attempts to gain access to a system or to discover information about the system. Probing is the electronic equivalent of testing doorknobs to find an unlocked door for easy entry. Probes are sometimes followed by a more serious security event, but they are often the result of curiosity or confusion.

Scan

A scan is simply a large number of probes done using an automated tool. Scans can sometimes be the result of a misconfiguration or other error, but they are often a prelude to a more directed attack on systems that the intruder has found to be vulnerable.

Account compromise

An account compromise is the unauthorized use of a computer account by someone other than the account owner, without involving system-level or root-level privileges (privileges a system administrator or network manager has). An account compromise might expose the victim to serious data loss, data theft, or theft of services.

Root compromise

A root compromise is similar to an account compromise, except that the account that has been compromised has special privileges on the system. Intruders who succeed in a root compromise can do just about anything on the victim’s system, including run their own programs, change how the system works, and hide traces of their intrusion.

Packet sniffer

A packet sniffer is a program that captures data from information packets as they travel over the network. That data may include user names, passwords, and proprietary information that travels over the network in clear text. With perhaps hundreds or thousands of passwords captured by the sniffer, intruders can launch widespread attacks on systems.

Exploitation of trust

Computers on networks often have trust relationships with one another. For example, before executing some commands, the computer checks a set of files that specify which other computers on the network are permitted to use those commands. If attackers can forge their identity, appearing to be using the trusted computer, they may be able to gain unauthorized access to other computers.

Malicious code

Malicious code is a general term for programs that, when executed, would cause undesired results on a system. Users of the system usually are not aware of the program until they discover the damage. Malicious code includes Trojan horses, viruses, and worms. Trojan horses and viruses are usually hidden in legitimate programs or files that attackers have altered to do more than what is expected. Worms are self-replicating programs that spread with no human intervention after they are started. Viruses are also self-replicating programs, but usually require some action on the part of the user to spread inadvertently to other programs or systems. These sorts of programs can lead to serious data loss, downtime, denial-of-service, and other types of security incidents.