From the history of telegraph
1. Any system that can transmit encoded information by signal across a distance may be called a telegraph. The word was coined in about 1792 from the Greek words tele, “far,” and graphein, “to write,” but the principle is much older. The earliest forms of telegraphy were probably smoke, fire, and drum signals. By about 300 BC Greeks had devised a method of alphabetic signaling using large vases visible from a distance. Letters were signified according to the positions of vases in a grid of rows and columns. A similar system was used by medieval prisoners tapping signals between cells, using grids.
2. In the late 18th century optical telegraphs were invented by Claude Chappe in France and by George Murray in England. Called semaphores, they relayed messages from hilltop to hilltop with the aid of telescopes. Chappe's system used a vertical timber holding a movable crossbar with indicators at each end that could assume various configurations like a signalman with flags. Murray's system used a large tower-mounted box with six panels that opened and closed in different coded combinations.
3. Rapid development of telegraph systems came with the discovery that electric impulses could be used to transmit signals along a wire. Among the many electric systems devised was the needle telegraph. This was based on Hans Christian Oersted's discovery in 1819 that an electric current in a wire caused a magnetized needle next to the wire to deflect. The five-needle telegraph - patented by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in London in 1837—utilized this principle with a panel imprinted with letters and numerals to which the five needles pointed singly or in pairs. It was widely used in Great Britain, especially for railroad signaling.
4. The development of the electromagnet about that time provided Samuel F.B. Morse with a way to transmit and receive electric signals. Together with Alfred Vail, his partner from 1837, Morse developed the simple operator key—something like a single typewriter key—which when depressed completed an electric circuit and sent an electric pulse to a distant receiver. This was originally a device that embossed a series of dots and dashes on a paper roll. About 1856 a sounding key was developed; skilled operators could listen to what the key “said” and write the messages directly. Telegraph systems quickly spread across Europe and the United States and soon resulted in mergers and associations such as the Western Union Telegraph Company in 1856.
5. With growing telegraph traffic, refinements were necessary. The duplex circuit, developed in Germany, made it possible for messages to travel simultaneously in opposite directions on the same line. Thomas Edison devised a quadruplex system in 1874 that permitted four messages to travel at once, two going in each direction. The most revolutionary system was invented by Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot. His time-division multiplex, invented in 1872, consisted of a brush arm that traveled around a copper ring divided into equal sectors. In each sector there were five segments capable of receiving electric impulses and corresponding to a five-level code. As the brush arm moved in its circle, it picked up a code number from one sector and then the next and so on. As many messages as there were sectors could be sent simultaneously. The Baudot code is still used in some modern teletype machines.
6. By the end of the 19th century, the world was crisscrossed by telegraph lines, including numerous cables across the Atlantic Ocean. Some early telegraphs using keyboards and type wheels could produce tapes of printed messages, which were long used in stock-exchange tickers. In 1903 Donald Murray of England combined Baudot's time-division multiplex system and its five-level code with a system for punching tape devised by Wheatstone to produce a system that transmitted page-form telegrams.The invention of the telephone made a new range of technology available to telegraphy, particularly in the field of high-speed information transmission. Other significant developments in telegraphy include the use of microwave radio links to carry up to 1,800 channels in a single circuit. Satellite transmission is now widely used for international telegraphy, as are the high-frequency radio bands. Many modern telegraph terminals consist of tele-printers using the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), a seven-pulse code capable of producing 128 alphabet, number, and control signals.
Notes:
grid - сетка
deflect - отклоняться
emboss - выбивать
refinement - усовершенствование
duplex – дуплексная (связь)
quadruplex – квадраплексный
time-division multiplex – временное уплотнение
stock-exchange tickers – телеграфный аппарат, автоматически печатающий на ленте последние биржевые новости
II.Read the text and answer the questions:
1. What system can be called a telegraph?
2. Who invented optical telegraphs?
3. What discovery contributed to the rapid development of telegraph systems in the 19thcentury?
4. What principle was used in the five-needle telegraph patented by W. Cooke and Ch. Wheatstone?
5. Whose code is still used in some modern teletype machines?
6. Who produced a system that transmitted page-form telegrams?
III. Explain the origin of the word “telegraph”.
IV. Find the information about the earliest telegraph systems used.
V. Describe how A. Vail and S. Morse's simple operator key worked.
VI. Name refinements that were necessary for the development of telegraph in the 19thcentury.
VII. In paragraph 5 find the place about Baudot system.
VIII. Which paragraph contains information about the significant developments used in telegraphy nowadays.
IX. Give the main points of the text in 5-6 sentences.
UNIT 4
Part A
Word List
| actual | //'xktSuql/ | фактический, реальный, подлинный |
| amplify | //q'reI/ | усиливать |
| array | //'xmplIfaI/ | множество, вчт матрица, массив |
| assemble | //q'sembl/ | собирать, монтировать |
| axial | //'xksiql/ | осевой |
| beat | //bi:t/ | бой, биение, колебание маятника |
| circuitry | //'sq:kItri/ | схемы, схемотехника |
| complex | //'kPmpleks/ | сложный, комплексный |
| determine | //dI'tq:mIn/ | определять |
| efficiently | //I'fISntli/ | умело, эффективно, производительно,продуктивно |
| exactly | //Ig'zxktli/ | точно, ровно |
| fast | //fQ:st/ | скорый, быстрый |
| ultrafast | //'AltrqfQ:st/ | сверхскорый |
| fidelity | //fI'delqti/ | верность, качество, воспроизведения, точность |
| high fidelity | //'haIfI'delqti/ | высококачественное воспроизведение |
| gripper | //'grIpq/ | схват (робота), захватное устройство (робота) |
| highlight | //'haIlaIt/ | выделять, заострять внимание |
| interference | //Intq'fIqrqns/ | вмешательство, помеха |
| internal | //In'tE:nl/ | внутренний |
| invaluable | //In'vxljuqbl/ | неоценимый, бесценный |
| magnify | //'mxgnIfaI/ | увеличивать |
| oscilloscope | //q'sIlqskqVp/ | осциллоскоп |
| pack | //pxk/ | упаковывать, уплотнять |
| pendulum | //'pendjqlqm/ | маятник |
| prevent | //prI'vent/ | предотвращать, препятствовать |
| record | //'rekO:d/ | запись |
| response | //rI'spPns/ | ответ, реакция, отклик |
| tie | //taI/ | связывать, привязывать, завязывать |
| tune | //tju:n/ | настраивать, ~out устранять |
| vast | //vQ:st/ | обширный, просторный, громадный, огромный |
| versatile | //'vE:sqtaIl/ | разносторонний, многосторонний, универсальный |
| voluminous | //vq'lu:mInqs/ | огромный |
I. Study the following words and choose:
a) nouns
1) a) actual; b) act; c) actuality; d) actualize
2) a) amplify; b) amplification; c) amplifier; d)amplified
3) a) carry; b) carrier; c)carriage; d)carried
4) a) guide; b) guidance; c)guided; d)guiding
5) a) vast; b) vastness; c) vastly; d) vastitude
b) adjectives
1) a) axe; b) axial; c) axle; d) axled
2) a) pendulum; b) pendant; c) pendulous; d) pendulate
3) a) control; b) controller; c) controllable; d)controllability
4) a) determine; b) determinate; c) determinable; d) determination
5) a) magnify; b) magnificence; c) magnificent; d) magnification
c) verbs
1) a) vital; b) vitalize; c) vitality; d)vitalization
2) a) prevent; b) preventive; c) prevention; d) preventor
3) a)transmitter; b) transmit; c) transmissible; d) transmitting
4) a) tune; b) tuneful; c) tuned d) tuner
5) a) volume; b) voluminous; c) volumetric; d) voluminosity
II. Arrange the words of the two groups in pairs
a) with similar meaning
1. Complex, to highlight, to amplify, to control, to determine, to magnify, response, to manufacture, to supplement, fast, vast, versatile, voluminous.
2. Huge, to draw attention to, extensive, sophisticated, to direct, to define, to increase, answer, to produce, to add, rapid, many-sided, to strengthen.
b) with contrary meaning.
1. Fast, internal, invaluable, sophisticated, vital, voluminous, to amplify, to assemble, to magnify, to pack, to prevent, to tie, exactly, efficiently.
2. To weaken, simple, slow, to take to pieces, to reduce, to unpack, to promote, to untie, approximately, external, valuable, small, unimportant, inefficiently.
III. Match the words with their definitions.
| 1. circuit 2. beat 3. fiber 4. fidelity 5. oscillator 6. pendulum 7. response 8. complex 9. internal 10.voluminous | a) hit repeatedly b) one of the slender threads of which many animal and vegetable growths are formed, e.g. cotton, wood, nerves, muscles c) closed path for an electric current d) device for producing electric oscillations e) accuracy, exactness f) answer, reaction g) difficult to understand or explain h) weighted rod hung from a fixed point so that it swings freely, esp. one to regulate the movement of a clock i) great in quantity; occupying much space j) of or in the inside |
IV. Study the text and try to understand all details.
1. Integrated circuits are extremely versatile because a single basic design can be made to perform hundreds of different functions, depending on the wiring of the circuits and the electronic programs or instructions that are fed into them. Most ICs perform calculations or logic manipulations in devices ranging from hand-held calculators to ultrafast supercomputers that can perform billions of calculations per second.
2. There are many other functions, however, that can be done with electronic circuitry. In radio and television receivers a primary function of circuits is the amplification of weak signals received by the antenna. In amplification a small signal is magnified to a large signal that is used to drive other circuits such as the speakers of a radio.
3. In many cases this amplification is performed with the help of oscillator circuits. Such circuits have a natural period or cycle of electrical current, similar to the natural beat of a pendulum. When driven by external signals of the same period, such as the transmission from a particular radio channel, the oscillator circuit increases its amplitude of oscillation.
4. To tune out other radio or television stations also received by a single antenna, filter circuits are frequently used. Such filters strongly reduce the signals at all but a single frequency, preventing interference among channels in a receiver.
5. These and other basic circuit types are used in a vast array of electronic devices. Consumer electronics, a field that was first developed in the 19th century with the invention of the phonograph, now includes radios, television sets, high-fidelity stereo systems, tape recorders, calculators, video games, and personal computers. Most of these devices contain one or more integrated circuits. Electronic controls have also been added to many electrical appliances such as dishwashers, washing machines, ovens, and food processors.
6. In industry and trade the computer, made up of from one to several thousand integrated circuits, has become an invaluable tool, controlling industrial operations and keeping track of voluminous business records. When connected to mechanical arms and grippers, electronics is the brain of the industrial robot that has come into increasingly widespread use for painting, welding, and assembling products that range from automobiles to watches.
7. Scientists use electronic computers to perform extremely complex calculations such as determining exactly the course of distant space probes; the probes themselves are packed with electronic instruments and communications equipment. Electronic instruments are used on Earth for scientific measurements and in the electronics industry itself to test equipment as it is manufactured. The oscilloscope, for example, is used to diagnose problems in electronic circuits, through a comparison of expected test patterns with actual results.
8. In the field of medicine electronic diagnostic instruments have given physicians a much clearer view of the human body than ever before. Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanners, which are a sophisticated form of X-ray machines, use computers to analyze X rays and produce three-dimensional views of internal organs. Nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr) scanners analyze the response of the body's chemicals to radio waves and magnetic fields, producing maps of the body's biochemistry and clearly highlighting areas of disease.
9. Virtually all modern communications rely on electronics. Electronic circuits switch telephone calls both on Earth and in communications satellites. Satellite electronics systems amplify and retransmit television and radio communications. Computers are tied together by electronic networks.
V. Say whether the following statements are true or false.
1. In radio or television receivers a secondary function of circuits is the amplification of weak signals received by the antenna.
2. In amplification a large signal is magnified to a small signal.
3. Amplification isn’t performed with the help of oscillator circuits.
4. Filter circuits are frequently used to tune out other radio or television stations.
5. The computer controls industrial operations and keeps track of voluminous business records.
6. Electronic instrument diagnosing problems in electronic circuits is the amplifier.
7. Computerized axial tomography scanners produce four-dimentional views of internal organs.
8. Electronic circuits switch telephone calls both on Earth and in communications satellites.
VI. Complete the following sentences choosing the most suitable variant.
1. Integrated circuits are extremely ….
a) simple b) versatile c) large
2. Amplification of weak signals is performed with the help of ….
a) scanner circuits b) oscillator circuits c) filter circuits
3. Filter circuits are used ….
a) to increase the signals
b) to tune out radio or television stations
c) to interfere in the channels in a receiver
4. Consumer electronics was first developed….
a) in the 20th century b) in the 19th century c) in the 21st century
5. Many electrical appliances have got ….
a) displays b) scanners c) electronic controls
6. The device used to diagnose problems in electronic circuits is called
a) calculator b) oscilloscope c) laser
7. Television and radio communications are amplified and retransmitted by ….
a) satellite electronics systems b) navigation system c) television
VII. Read the first sentence of the text and mark pauses. Divide it into sense groups, find out the means of connection between these sense groups and between the words in each group.
VIII. In paragraphs 2 and 3 find English equivalents of the following words and word combinations.
Радио и телевизионные приемники, усиление слабых сигналов, увеличивать собственное колебание маятника, передача, амплитуда колебания.
IX. Read paragraph 4 and answer the questions.
1. What is used to tune out other radio or television stations also received by a single antenna?
2. What do such filters strongly reduce?
X. In paragraph 5 find information about modern electrical appliances.
XI. Make an outline of the text.
XII. Speak about different applications of ICs.
Part B
I. Look through the list of English words and their Russian equivalents facilitating reading text B.
| advent | появление |
| composite | составной, сложный |
| coat | покрывать |
| digital | цифровой |
| data | данные |
| film | пленка |
| load | загружать |
| lacquer | (летучий) лак |
| label | наклейка, этикетка |
| lay out (laid, laid) | выставлять |
| layer | слой |
| ofset printing | офисная печать |
| to store | хранить |
| trim | подрезать |
| scratch | царапать |
| silkscreening | трафаретная печать |
| storage | запоминающее устройство, память |
II. Define the meaning of the “x” words.
e.g. develop: development = развивать: х
store: storage = хранить: х
invent: invention = изобретать: х
view: viewer = рассматривать: х
load: loading = загружать: х
reduce: reduction = уменьшать: х
increase: increasing = увеличивать: х
III. Complete the sentences with the given words:
invented, a data storage device, audio CDs, the advantage of MP3, coated, the data format of the disc, silkscreening and offset printing.
1. A compact disc is also used as……
2. Personal computers can generally play …..
3. …. is that it reduces the amount of space required to store audio by around ten times.
4. Philips …. the general manufacturing process.
5. Compact discs are made of polycarbonate plastic … with a much thinner aluminium.
6. Common printing methods for compact discs are ….
7. The Dutch electronics company Philips laid out … .
IV. Choose:
a) nouns
| 1. | a) coat | b) coated | c) uncoat |
| 2. | a) layer | b) lay | c) laid |
| 3. | a) print | b) printer | c) printable |
| 4. | a) trim | b) trimmer | c) trimmed |
b) adjectives
| 1. | a) scratch | b) scratchy | c) scratched |
| 2. | a) silk | b) silken | c) silky |
| 3. | a) digital | b) digit | c) digitizer |
| 4. | a) composite | b) composition | c) compositor |
V. Read the text and define its main idea.
COMPACT DISC
1. A compact disc(or CD)is an optical disc used for storing digital data. It was originally invented for digital audio and is also used as a data storage device, a CD-ROM. CD-ROM reading device is a standard component of most modern personal computers. In general, audio CDs are distinct from CD-ROMs, and CD players intended for listening to audio cannot make sense of the data on a CD-ROM, though personal computers can generally play audio CDs. It is possible to produce composite CDs containing both data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD player, whilst data or perhaps video can be viewed on a computer. Lately, with the advent of MP3 technology, audio player devices have been developed that can load and play MP3-formatted files from CD-ROM discs. The advantage of MP3 is that it reduces the amount of space required to store audio by around ten times, thereby increasing maximum playback time per disc from around 74 minutes to more than 700 without significant degradation in sound quality.
2.The compact disc was developed in 1979 by Philips and Sony. Philips invented the general manufacturing process, based on their earlier Laserdisc technology, while Sony contributed the error-correction method. 1982 saw its mass production in Langenhagen near Hanover, Germany. Microsoft and Apple Computer were early enthusiasts and promoters of CD-ROMs. John Sculley. CEO of Apple at the time, said as early as 1987 that the CD-ROM would revolutionize the use of personal computers.
Originally the CD was supposed to be 60 minutes, but Sony insisted on it being 74 minutes so it could hold even the slowest versions of Beethoven's 9th Symphony. Later on, the discs would become larger, tough.
3. Compact discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic coated with a much thinner aluminium (originally gold, although you can still buy gold CDs for their data longevity) layer which is protected by a film of lacquer. The lacquer can be printed with a label. Common printing methods for compact discs are silkscreening and offset printing. CDs arc available in a range of sizes but the most commonly available is 120 mm (about 5 inches) in diameter. A 120 mm disc can store about 74 minutes of music or about 650 megabytes of data. Discs that can store about 700 megabytes (80 minutes of music) have become more common however. Less common 90, 99, and 100 minute discs also exist but are not compatible with all CD writers or readers. The mini-CD (not to be confused with the similar MiniDisc) is 80 mm (about 3 1/8 inches) in diameter, holds about 184MB of data or 21 minutes of audio, and has the exact same data format as the larger one. Yet another version of the CD has a mini-CD trimmed down to fit in with business cards.
4. The data format of the disc, known as the “Red Book” standard, was laid out by the Dutch electronics company Philips, who own the rights to the licensing of the “CDDA” logo that appears on the disc. In broad terms the format is a two-channel (left and right, for stereo) 16-bit PCM encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate. Reed-Solomon error correction allows the CD to be scratched (to a certain degree) without degradation of the contents.
VI. Say if the following statements are true or false. Correct the false statements.
1. Personal computers can’t play audio CD.
2. There are many advantages of MP3 technology.
3. Microsoft was the pioneer in the usage of CD-ROMs.
4. First disks were large and tough.
5. The producers protect CD by a film of lacquer.
6. Mini-CD holds 80 minutes of audio.
VII. Choose the best continuation for each of the following.
1. Compact disk was invented for a. a personal computer
2. CD-ROM is a part of b. 1979
3. The first CD was developed in c. thin aluminium
4. The mini CD has the same data format d. digital devises
5. CD is coated with e. 700 megabytes
6. CD can store f. as the larger
VIII. Divide the text into logical parts and find the topical sentences in each
part.
IX. Give a short summary of text B.
Part C
I. Read the following text and entitle it.
1. Despite the importance of these other types of electronic devices, semiconductor-based circuits are the essential features of modern electronic equipment. These circuits are not made up of individual, separated components as was once the case. Instead, thousands of tiny circuits are embedded in a single complex piece of silicon and other materials called an integrated circuit (IC).
2. The manufacture of integrated circuits begins with a simple circular wafer of silicon a few inches across. Designers have produced drawings of exactly where each element in the finished circuits is to go. Usually these diagrams are themselves made with the help of computers. Photographs of the diagrams are then reduced in size many times to produce a photolithographic mask. The wafers are first coated with a material called a photoresist that undergoes a chemical change when exposed to light. Light shone through the mask onto the photo resist creates the same pattern on the wafer as that on the mask. Solvents then etch away the parts of the resist exposed to light, leaving the other parts intact.
3. After this another layer of material—for example, silicon doped with some impurities—is laid down on top of the wafer, and another pattern is etched in by the same technique. The result of several such operations is a multilayered circuit, with thousands of tiny transistors, resistors, and conductors created in the wafer.The wafer is then broken apart along pre-stressed lines into dozens of identical square or rectangular chips—the finished integrated circuits.
4. During the 1970s and 1980s advancing technology reduced the size of individual circuit elements by a factor of two every two years, leading in the same period to a fourfold increase in the number of elements that can fit on a chip. This rapid increase in the power of the chips and the simultaneous rise in their speed allowed the development of microprocessors. Microprocessors, which are at the heart of millions of personal and home computers, pack the same computing power into a tiny chip a fraction of an inch on a side that 20 years earlier would have been provided by a computer that filled a whole room and cost many millions of dollars.
5. Individual chips are mounted on carriers with several dozen connector leads emerging from them. These, in turn, are soldered together onto printed circuit boards that may contain many dozens of chips. In large computers the boards themselves are mounted into large racks and again connected together.
6. By the mid-1980s integrated circuits made with the most advanced technology could carry as many as a million individual transistors, each only a few microns on a side. (A micron is a thousandth of a millimeter, or 0.00004 inch.) Many electrical engineers and scientists believe that the ultimate limits of size in these circuits might soon be reached.
7. It was expected that the circuit elements would become too small and contain too few individual atoms to be manufactured reliably. To continue the reduction in size and cost of microcircuits, new principles of operation may be required, perhaps involving specially designed organic molecules.
II. Read the text and answer the questions.
1. What does the manufacture of integrated circuits consist of?
2. When did advancing technology reduce the size of individual circuit elements by a factor of two every two years?
3. What allowed the development of microprocessors?
4. What do microprocessors comprise?
5. What could integrated circuits carry by the mid-1980s?
6. What is necessary to continue the reduction in size and cost of microcircuits?
III. Give the main points of the text in 5-6 sentences.
UNIT 5
Part A
Word List
| add | //xd/ | складывать, прибавлять |
| amazing | //q'meIzIN/ | удивительный, поразительный |
| appear | //q'pIq(r)/ | появляться |
| approximately | //q'prPksImqtlI/ | приблизительно |
| brand | //brxnd/ | сорт, фабричная марка |
| central processing unit | //"sentrql'prqVsesIN"ju:nIt/ | центральное процессорное устройство |
| complete | //kqm'pli:t/ | совершенный, полный, законченный |
| delay | //dI'leI/ | задержка, замедление |
| design | //dI'zaIn/ | проект, конструкция |
| execute | //'eksIkju:t/ | исполнять, выполнять |
| fabricate | //'fxbrIkeIt/ | изготовлять, производить |
| familiar | //fq'mIliq(r)/ | хорошо знакомый, известный |
| improvement | //Im'pru:vmqnt/ | улучшение, усовершенствование |
| incorporate | //In'kO:pqreIt/ | изготовлять, производить |
| introduce | //"Intrq'dju:s/ | вводить, представлять |
| portable | //'pO:tqbl/ | портативный |
| relationship | //rI'leISnSIp/ | связь, отношение |
| splash | //splxS/ | вычитать |
| subtract | //sqb'trxkt/ | всплеск, бум |
I. Study the following words and choose nouns:
| 1) a) introduced | b) introduce | c) introducing | d) introduction |
| 2) a) process | b) processor | c) processing | d) procession |
| 3) a) appear | b) appearance | c) disappear | d) disappearance |
| 4) a) direct | b) direction | c) directly | d) directness |
| 5) a) completion | b) completely | c) completeness | d) complete |
| 6) a) using | b) used | c) user | d) usage |
| 7) a) relate | b) relative | c)relatively | d) relationship |
| 8) a) completion | b) completely | c) completeness | d) complete |
| 9) a) execute | b) exact | c) executive | d) execution |
II. Arrange the words of the two groups in pair:
a) with similar meaning
| 1) type 2) fabricate 3) complete 4) basic 5) execute 6) introduce 7) relationship 8) speed | a) perfect b) connection c) perform operation d) fundamental e) rate f) manufacture g) kind h) bring into use |
b) with contrary meaning
| 1) complete 2) powerful 3) appear 4) approximately 5) add 6) same 7) familiar | a) powerless b) disappear c) incomplete d) subtract e) exactly f) unfamiliar g) different |
III. Match the words with their definitions.
| 1) brand | a) perform operation |
| 2) execute | b) construct or manufacture |
| 3) fabricate | c) a special or characteristic kind |
| 4) computer | d) make whole or perfect |
| 5) portable | e) electronic device for storing and processing data |
| 6) design | f) one only |
| 7) single | g) a scheme of lines or shapes forming a pattern |
| 8) complete | h) convenient for carrying |
| 9) relationship | i) connection |
IV. Study the text and try to understand all details.
MICROPROCESSOR HISTORY
1. The computer you are using to read this page uses a microprocessor to do its work. The microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer, whether it is a desktop machine, a server or a laptop. The microprocessor you are using might be a Pentium, a K6, PowerPC, a Sparc or any of the many other brands and types of microprocessors, but they all do approximately the same thing in approximately the same way.
2. A microprocessor – also known as a CPU or central processing unit – is a complete computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful – all it could do was add and subtract, and it could only do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip. Prior to the 4004, engineers built computers either from collections of chip or from discrete components (transistors wired one at a time). The 4004 powered one of the first portable electronic calculators.
3. The first microprocessor to make it into a home computer was the Intel 8080, a complete 8-bit computer on one chip, introduced in 1974. The first microprocessor to make a real splash in the market was the Intel 8088, introduced in 1979 and incorporated into the IBM PC (which first appeared around 1982). If you are familiar with the PC market and its history, you know that PC market moved from the 8088 to the 80286 to the 80386 to the 80486 to the Pentium to the Pentium II to the Pentium III to the Pentium 4. All of these microprocessors are made by Intel and all of them are improvements on the basic design of the 8088. The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that runs on the original 8088, but it does it about 5,000 times faster!
4. The following table helps you to understand the differences between the different processors that Intel has introduced over the years.
| Name | Date | Transistors | Microns | Clock speed | Data width | MIPS |
| 6,000 | MHz | 8 bits | 0.64 | |||
| 29,000 | MHz | 16 bits, 8-bit bus | 0.33 | |||
| 134,000 | 1.5 | MHz | 16 bits | |||
| 275,000 | 1.5 | MHz | 32 bits | |||
| 1,200,000 | MHz | 32 bits | ||||
| Pentium | 3,100,000 | 0.8 | MHz | 32 bits, 64-bit bus | ||
| Pentium II | 7,500,000 | 0.35 | MHz | 32 bits, 64-bit bus | ~300 | |
| Pentium III | 9,500,000 | 0.25 | MHz | 32 bits, 64-bit bus | ~510 | |
| Pentium 4 | 42,000,000 | 0.18 | 1.5 GHz | 32 bits, 64-bit bus | ~1,700 |
5. From this table you can see that, in general, there is a relationship between clock speed and MIPS. The maximum clock speed is a function of the manufacturing process and delays within the chip. There is also a relationship between the number of transistors and MIPS. For example, the 8088 clocked at 5 MHz but only executed at 0.33 MIPS (about one instruction per 15 clock cycles). Modern processors can often execute at a rate of two instructions per clock cycle. That improvement is directly related to the number of transistors on the chip.
Notes:
MIPS (millions of instructions per second) - миллион инструкций в секунду
V. Say whether the following statements are true or false.
1. A microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer.
2. The microprocessor known as CPU is a complete computation engine that is fabricated on a dozen of chips.
3. The first microprocessor was Intel 4004, introduced in 1973.
4. The 4004 was not very powerful – all it could do was add and subtract.
5. The first microprocessor which made a real splash in the market was the Intel 4004.
6. Modern processors can often execute at a rate of two instructions per clock cycle.
VI. Complete the following sentences choosing the most suitable variant.
1. The microprocessor is the heart of … .
a) any normal computer
b) any computation engine
c) any vacuum tube
2. Central processing unit is a complete computation engine fabricated…
a) on a dozen of chips
b) on a single chip
c) on a square meter
3. The first microprocessor was Intel 4004, introduced in …
a)1971, b)1975, c)1998
4. The 4004 powered one of …
a) the first portable electronic calculators
b) the second portable electronic calculators
c) the third portable electronic calculators
5. All these microprocessors are improvements of the basic design
of the…
a) 8088, b) 80286, c) 80386
6. That improvement is directly related to the number of …
a) IC on the chip
b) transistors on the chip
c) vacuum tubes on the chip
VII .Read the third sentence of the first paragraph of the text and mark pauses. Divide it into sense groups, find out the means of connection between these sense groups and between the words in each group.
VIII. In paragraphs 2 and 3 find English equivalents of the following words and word combinations.
Центральное процессорное устройство, на отдельном кристалле, изготавливать, настоящий бум на рынке, прежде.
IX. Read paragraph 3 and answer the questions.
1. What have you learnt about the first microprocessor Intel 8080? Describe its characteristic features.
2. What microprocessor made a real splash in the market? And why?
X. In paragraph 4 find information about a relationship between the number of transistors and MIPS.
XI. Make an outline of the text.
XII. Speak about microprocessor as the heart of any computer.
Part B
I. Look through the list of words and make your predictions about the content of it.
1) alter – чередовать, изменять
2) barrier – барьер, экран
3) cell – ячейка, элемент
4) console – пульт управления
5) charge – заряд, заряжать
6) drain – ток, потребление тока
7) drive – привод, двигать, приводить в действие
8) electron gun – электронная пушка
9) excite – возбуждать, побуждать
10) flow – поток
11) erase – стирать запись
12) layer – слой, пласт
13) threshold – порог, предел
14) storage – хранение
II. Define the meaning of the “x” words.
1. Charge: chargeable = заряжать: x
2. Alter: alteration = изменять: х
3. Electron: electronics = электрон: х
4. Application: apply = применение: х
5. Erase: eraser = стирать: х
III. Complete the sentences with the given words:
barrier, electron gun, to alter, storage, drains.
1. Flash memory is used for easy and fast information ….
2. Tunneling is used …. the placement of electrons in the floating gate.
3. The charge enters the floating gate and drains ….. to a ground.
4. This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like …… .
5. These negatively charged electrons act as a ….. between the control gate and the floating gate.
IV. Study the following words and choose:
a) nouns
| 1) a) storage | b) store | c) storing | d) stored |
| 2) a) lay | b) layer | c) laid | d) laying |
| 3) a) memorize | b) memorial | c) memory | d) memorable |
B) verbs
| 1) a) alternate | b) alter | c) alternation | d) alternative |
| 2) a) trapper | b) trappy | c) trap | d) trapeze |
| 3) a) excitable | b) excitant | c) excite | d) excitement |
V. Read the text and entile it.
Electronic memory comes in a variety of forms to serve a variety of purposes. Flash memory is used for easy and fast information storage in such devices as digital cameras and home video game consoles. It is used more as hard drive than as RAM. In fact, Flash memory is considered a solid state storage device. Solid state means that there are no moving parts - everything is electronic instead of mechanical.
Here are a few examples of Flash memory:
• Your computer's BIOS chip
• CompactFlash (most often found in digital cameras)
• SmartMedia (most often found in digital cameras)
• MemoryStick (most often found in digital cameras)
• PCMCIA Type I and Type II memory cards (used as solid-state disks in laptops)
• Memory cards for video game consoles
The two transistors are separated from each other by a thin oxide layer. One of the transistors is known as a floating gate, and the other one is the control gate. The floating gate's only link to the row, or wordline, is through the control gate. As long as this link is in place, the cell has a value of 1. To change the value to a 0 requires a curious process called Fowler-Nordheim tunneling. Tunneling is used to alter the placement of electrons in the floating gate. An electrical charge, usually 10 to 13 volts, is applied to the floating gate. The charge comes from the column, or bitline, enters the floating gate and drains to a ground. This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like an electron gun. The excited electrons are pushed through and trapped on other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a negative charge. These negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate and the floating gate. A special device called a cell sensor monitors the level of the charge passing through the floating gate. If the flow through the gate is greater than 50 per cent of the charge, it has a value of 1. When the charge passing through drops below the 50-percent threshold, the value changes to 0. A blank EEPROM has all of the Erasing. The electrons in the cells of a Flash-memory chip can be returned to normal ("1") by the application of an electric field, a higher-voltage charge. Flash memory uses in-circuit wiring to apply the electric field either to the entire chip or to predetermined sections known as blocks. This erases the targeted area of the chip, which can then be rewritten. Flash memory works much faster than a traditional EEPROMs because instead of erasing one byte at a time, it erases a block or the entire chip, and then rewrites it.
Notes:
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) – электрически стираемая память
VI. Say if the following statements are true or false. Correct the false statements.
1. Flash memory is used for easy and fast information storage.
2. Flash memory is considered a mechanical device.
3. The floating gate is only link to the row, or wordline.
4. Tunneling is used to alter the placement of atoms in the floating gate.
5. If the flow through the gate is greater than 50 per cent of the charge, it has a value of 0.
6. Flash memory works much faster than a traditional EEPROMs.
VII. Divide the text into logical parts and find the topical sentences in each part.
VIII. Give a short summary of text B.
Part C
I. Read the following text and entitle it.
1. Semiconductors have had a monumental impact on our society. You find semiconductors at the heart of microprocessor chip as well as transistors. Anything that’s computerized or uses radio waves depends on semiconductors.
2. Today, most semiconductor chips and transistors are created with silicon. You may have heard expressions like “Silicon Valley” and the “silicon economy,” and that’s why – silicon is the heart of any electronic or computer device.
3. A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device, and is therefore an excellent beginning point if you want to understand how semiconductors work.
4. Silicon is a very common element – for example, it is the main element in sand and quartz. If you look “silicon” up in the periodic table, you will find that it sits next to aluminum, below carbon and above germanium.
5. Carbon, silicon and germanium (which, like silicon, is also a semiconductor) have a unique property in their electron structure – each has four electrons in its outer orbital. This allows them to form nice crystals. The four electrons form perfect covalent bonds with four neighboring atoms, creating a lattice. In carbon, we know the crystalline form as diamond. In silicon, the crystalline form is a silvery, metallic-looking substance.
6. Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity because they usually have “free electrons” that can move easily between atoms, and electricity involves the flow of electrons. While silicon crystals look metallic, they are not, in fact, metals. All of the outer electrons in a silicon crystal are involved in perfect covalent bonds, so they can’t move around. A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator – very little electricity will flow through it.
Notes:
| bond carbon impact involve lattice pure | соединение, связь углерод воздействие, влияние вовлекать, включать в себя решетка чистый |
II. Read the text and answer the questions.
1. What elements are considered to be semiconductors?
2. Why is silicon the heart of any electronic or computer device?
3. What part do semiconductors play in a computer technology?
III. Which paragraph contains the information about conductors of electricity having “free electrons”.
IV. Give the main points of the text in 5-6 sentences.
UNIT 6
Part A
Word List
| accurately | //'xkjqrqtli/ | точно |
| available | //q'veIlqbl/ | 1) доступный, имеющийся в распоряжении; 2) пригодный, полезный |
| computer-aided design | //dI'zaIn/ | компьютерное проектирование |
| conduct transactions | //kqn'dAkt trxn'zxkSnz/ | вести дела |
| drastically | //'drxstIkli/ | решительно, радикально |
| fairly | //'feqli/ | 1) довольно, в известной степени; 2) явно, совершенно |
| host computer | //'hqVst kqm'pju:tq(r)/ | узловой компьютер |
| i.e. (id est, лат.) – that is | то есть | |
| intercept | //"Intq'sept/ | перехватить |
| knock out | //nPk/ | выводить из строя |
| packet switching | //'pxkIt'swItSIN/ | пакетная коммутация |
| provide (smb. with smth.) | //prq'vaId/ | 1) обеспечивать, 2) предоставлять, давать |
| refine | //rI'faIn/ | усовершенствовать |
| reliable | //rI'laIqbl/ | надежный |
| resolve a problem | //rI'zPlv/ | решать проблему |
| run (a network) | //rAn/ | руководить, управлять |
| router | //ru:t/ | маршрутизатор |
| service provider | //'sE:vIs prq'vaIdq(r)/ | поставщик сетевых услуг |
| wire | //'waIq(r)/ | провод, телеграф |
| wireless | //'waIqlqs/ | 1) беспроволочный; 2) радио |
I. Study the following words and choose:
a) nouns
1) reliable, rely, reliability, relied
2) provided, provider, provide, provident, provision
3) use, usage, useful, used
4) design, designate, designed, designer
b) verbs
1) receiver, receive, receivable, receivership
2) payable, pay, payment, payer
3) resolvent, resolution, resolute, resolve
4) cheap, cheapen, cheaply
c) adjectives
1) availability, avail, available
2) accessibility, access, accession, accessible
3) transmission, transmit, transmissible, transmitter
4) differently, differ, different, difference, differentiate
II. Arrange the words of the two groups in pairs
a) with similar meaning
| 1) route | a) information |
| 2) available | b) supply |
| 3) data | c) admittance |
| 4) provide | d) payment |
| 5) run | e) send |
| 6) transmit | f)path |
| 7) fee | g) accessible |
| 8) access | h) manage |
b) with contrary meaning
| 1) transmit | a) decrease |
| 2) reliable | b) wireless |
| 3) increase | c) make worse |
| 4) develop | d) cheap |
| 5) refine | e) receive |
| 6) wire | f.)decode |
| 7) encode | g) sustain |
| 8) expensive | h) unreliable |
III. Match the words with their definitions
| 1) host | a) to pass (from one person to another); |
| 2) net | b) ready to be used; which can be obtained; |
| 3) transmit | c) the company that maintains host computers which have an access to the Internet; |
| 4) message | d) make better; |
| 5) access | e) client / server computer through which most users experience their interaction with the Internet; |
| 6) service provider | f) to stop something as it is passing |
| 7) route | g) way of getting to someone, somewhere |
| 8) available | h) groups of hardware and communication software dedicated to maintaining communication with other nets; |
| 9) refine | i) way to be followed to get destination |
| 10) intercept | j) news / information sent to someone |
IV. Study the text and try to understand all details.
THE INTERNET
1. The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all over the world, began in the United States in 1969 as a military experiment. It was designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet switching. Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out (by a nuclear explosion, for example), information will just route around them.
2. Most of the Internet host computer (more than 50%) are in the United States, while the rest are located in more than 100 other countries. Although the number of host computers can be counted fairly accurately, nobody knows exactly how many people use the Internet, there are millions, and their number is growing by thousands each month worldwide.
3.The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail messages. However, other popular services are available on the Internet: reading USENET News, using the World-Wide Web, telnet, and Gopher.
4. In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunications systems of these countries. Commercial users can communicate over the Internet with the rest of the world and can do it very cheaply. When they send e-mail messages, they only have to pay for phone calls to their local service providers, not for calls across their countries or around the world. But who actually pays for sending e-mail messages over the Internet long distances, around the world? The answer is very simple: a user pays his / her service a monthly or hourly fee. Part of this fee goes towards its hosts to connect to a larger service provider. And part of the fee got by the large provider goes to cover its cost of running a worldwide network of wire and wireless stations.
5. But saving money is only the first step. If people see that they can make money from the Internet, commercial use of this network will drastically increase. For example, some western architecture companies and garment centers already transmit their basic designs and concepts over the Internet into China, where they are worked and refined by skilled – but inexpensive – Chinese computer-aided-design specialists.
6. However, some problems remain. The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and computers. The data are constantly being directed towards its destination by special computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the Internet. In spite of the fact that there are many strong encoding programs available, nearly all the information being sent over the Internet is transmitted without any form of encoding, i.e. “in the clear”. But when it becomes necessary to send important information over the network, these encoding programs may be useful. Some banks and companies even conduct transactions over the Internet. However, there are still both commercial and technical problems which will take time to be resolved.
VI. Say whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The number of the Internet users is growing each month worldwide. 2. The Internet was designed to survive a nuclear war. 3. Nearly all the information being sent over the Internet is encoded. 4. You have to pay for calls across your country or around the world when you send e-mail messages. 5. Some banks and companies are known to conduct transactions over the Internet. 6. The Internet began in the USA in 1989 as a military experiment.
VII. Complete the following sentences choosing the most suitable variant.
1. The technology of the Internet is called ….
a) step-by-step switching
b) message switching
c) packet switching
2. Information sent over the Internet takes….
a) the shortest path available from one computer to another
b) the longest path available from one computer to another
c) any path available from one computer to another
3. If your messages sent are to be confidential you have to use ….
a) decoding programs
b) encoding programs
c) entertainment programs
4. The most important problem of e-mail service is ….
a) security
b) cost
c) size
5. Most of the Internet host computers are in ….
a) Belarus
b) Australia
c) The USA
VIII. Read the first sentence of the text and mark pauses. Divide it into sense groups, find out the means of connection between these sense groups and between the words in each group.
IX. In paragraphs 2 and 3 find English equivalents of the following words and word combinations.
Доступ, узловой компьютер, точно, услуга, получать, остаток, размещаться, сообщение, имеющийся в распоряжении, сеть, возрастать.
X. Read paragraphs 4-5 and answer the questions.
1. What does the Internet supply commercial users with?
2. Are telecommunications systems reliable and cheap in comparison with the Internet?
3. What do the users of e-mail actually pay for?
4. Part of the fee goes towards its hosts to connect to a local service provider, doesn’t it?
5. Do you know the ways of making money from the Internet?
XI. In paragraphs 6 find information about consequences of “clear” data transmission over the Internet.
XII. Make an outline of the text.
XIII. Speak about the worldwide use of e-mail service.
Part B
I. Look through the list of words and make your predictions about the content of it.