The complex sentence with nominal clauses

All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause; an object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional.

Owing to their essential structural and semantic role in the sentence, all nominal clauses are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both the structure and meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical. Because of the close relationship between the clauses the complex sentence is pronounced as one whole, and the subordinate clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma, unless it is much extended and contains constructions or detached parts.

Since nominal clauses function as essential structural parts of the sentence, their relations to the main clause are confined to such purely grammatical sentential relations as subjective, predicative and objective.

Subject clauses

Subject clauses perform the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.

What I want to do is to save us both.

A subject clause may be introduced by conjunctions that, if, whether, whether... or, because, the way or connectives. The latter may be either conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever, which or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why, or asyndetically.

Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns:

1. When a subject clause precedes the predicate of the main clause:

What I need is a piece of good advice.

Whether I talked or not made little difference.

Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious.

How the book will sell depends on its plot and the author.

That he is a madman in an advanced stage of mania goes without saying.

Whoever moved in next would need it more than I.

Subject clauses of this type cannot be joined asyndetically, as the opening words signal the subordinate status of the clause.

2. When a subject clause is in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it:

It seemed unfair to him that he should suffer more than his wife.

It is understood that modern science allows such experiments.

There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the subordinate clause is a predicative clause.

In exclamatory sentences the formal it may be only implied.

How wonderful that they should meet at last! (How wonderful it is...)

In this pattern of the complex sentence the subject clause may be joined asyndetically.

It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her.

Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.

Who her mother was, and how she came to die in that forlornness, were questions that often pressed on Eppie's mind.

It was plain, pitiably plain, that he was aware of his own defect of memory, and that he was bent on hiding it from the observation of his friends.

Predicative clauses

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i.e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.

A predicative clause may be introduced by conjunctions that, whether, whether... or, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way, or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever, which or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why, or asyndetically.

The fact was that he had forgotten about it.

The only reason for my coining is because I hoped to see you again.

Our fear was lest we should miss him in the crowd.

That’s what he wants you to think.

The choice of conjunction is closely connected with the meaning of the word functioning as the subject of the main clause. Thus the conjunction because is used when the word functioning as subject expresses reason, the conjunction whether — when it expresses doubtor implies choice. The connective when is used when the noun functioning as subject expresses a temporal notion (time, day, evening, moment) and the connective where is used when it denotes a place. Thus in the sentence given above The only reason for my coming is because I hoped to see you again the meaning of the subject reason predetermines the use of the conjunction because. In the same way in the sentence The question is whether we can manage without him the meaning of the subject question predetermines the conjunction whether.

This, however, does not mean that a certain conjunction is the only possible one, and that no other can be used after a certain word functioning as subject.

If the subject denotes order, proposal, request, suggestion, arrangement, desire,etc., the conjunction that is generally used, followed by a clause with the predicate in the subjunctive mood (should + infinitive).

The regulation was that the first examination should be done in writing.

Our proposal is that you should join in.

Their suggestion was that no one should interfere.

Predicative clauses withcomparative meaning are introduced by the comparative conjunctions as, as if, as though.

It was as though our last meeting was forgotten.

Everything remained as it used to be in this room.

She looks as if she were ill.

Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:

1. They may follow the main clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning (thing, question, problem, news, sensation, evil, rule, trouble, etc.). In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject.

Therule was that they walked down to the cliff path and travelled up in the lift.

Thetrouble was whether we could manage it ourselves or not.

Theproblem is not who will go, but who will stay.

2. The predicative clause may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by theimpersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison. The most frequent link verbs used in this pattern are feel, to look, to see; less frequent are to appear, to remain, to become, to sound, to taste.

It appears he hasn’t been there.

It sounded as if even the spring began by act of Parliament.

As a rule predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.

But the chief reason is, that Mirah will desire to watch over you and that you ought to give her the guardianship of a brother's presence.

Object clauses

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause.

I don't know what you are talking about.

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb,

to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.

I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard.

I ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry to get back to town.

Mr. Bruff folded up the will, and then looked my way apparently wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt.

Soames averted his eyes and became conscious that Winifred and he were alone.

They were not sure what the morrow would bring forth.

The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedding.

She was aware that someone else was there.

An object clause may be introduced by conjunctions that, if, whether, whether... or, lest, or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever, which, or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how, or asyndetically.

1. An object clause may directly follow the word it refers to (a non-prepositional object clause). In this case it is parallel in function to a direct object.

Jon wondered if he had offended her.

I know when I am wasting time.

A typical most recurrent type of object clauses is indirect speech following verbs of saying.

He said he had never heard of it.

He asked me if I wanted to stay.

Object clauses of this subtype are more informative than their main clauses, the role of the latter being relegated to that of introducing the source of information.

Like subject clauses, object clauses may be preceded by the formalit,usually after the verbs to feel, to believe, to consider, to find, to take, to like, to insist on, etc.

You may takeit that it is a genuine check.

I likeit when people are nice to me.

I insist uponit that you tell me all the details.

You are to see toit that there should be no quarrel.

An object clause may refer to formalit followed by the objective predicative after the verbs to think, to find, to make, to consider, etc.

I foundit strange that she could speak so calmly.

I thinkit necessary that you should go there at once.

He madeit clear that his intentions were honest.

2. Object clauses parallel in function to indirect objects are very rare. However, they are possible, the necessary condition for it being that the object clause should be followed by a direct object.

You may give whoever you like any presents.

3. There are also cases whenan object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb.

He and his mamma knew very few people and lived what might have been thought very lonely lives.

4. An object clause may be joined to the main clause by the preposi­tions after, about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as to, except, etc. (a prepositional object clause). In this case it is parallel in function to a prepositional non-recipient object. If a preposition is very closely attached to the preceding verb or adjective (to agree upon, to call for, to comment upon, to depend on, to hear of, to insist on, to be certain of, to be sorry for, etc.) it generally precedes the object clause.

I am not certain of what he did.

I want to be paid for what I do.

Some prepositions which would be indispensable before nounsor gerunds used as objects are not always necessary before object clauses.

We insisted that he should stay with us.

(We insisted on his staying with us.)

We agreed that the experiment should be stopped.

(We agreed upon stopping the experiment.)

The preposition is retained when there is a formal objectit followed by an object clause.

We insistedon it that he should stay with us.

We agreedupon it that the experiment should be stopped.

Attributive clauses

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones.

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.

Usually an attributive clause immediately follows its antecedent, although some types may occasionally be distant.

The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

The fortunate fact that the rector's letter did not require an immediate answer would give him time to consider. (ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE)

An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives - relative pronouns who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as, or relative adverbs when, where, whence, whereby, wherein. The choice of relative word depends on the categorical meaning of the antecedent.

a) If the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative pronoun who, whom, whose, or that is used.

A man whose voice seemed familiar to me gave commands.

Those of Big Lanny’s friends who saw him for the first time had to be told that he couldn’t see.

b) If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion, the relative word which, whose, or that is used; of these that is less formal.

At thisremark, to which he did not reply, Gerald's ears grew hot.

He went to the nexthouse, which stood in a small garden.

Clyde bowed and then took the coolhand that Myra extended to him.

Which may be used with reference to animals, although they are living beings.

He called back his dog, which returned obediently to its master

c) If the antecedent is expressed by all denoting a living being the pronoun who or that is used; if it denotes a thing or notion only the pronoun that is generally used.

All that remained was to enter his name and send off the high entrance fees for the examination.

d) If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally used, or else the clause is joined asyndetically.

There wasnothing in his face that spoke of his character.

Everything that you may want is in the wardrobe.

There wassomething in his low, languid voice that was absolutely fascinating.

e) If the antecedent is modified by the adjective only, the pronoun any, or by an adjective in the superlative degree, the attributive clause is introduced by the pronoun that or is joined asyndetically.

Theonly object that gave her satisfaction during those days was the white monkey.

This is thebest chance that we have.

She could jump atany opportunity that she might have.

f) If the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such, the relative pronoun as is used.

She was playing the piano withsuch feeling as couldn't he expected from a girl of her age.

g) After the antecedent modified by same, several relative expressions may be used:

the same children as..., the same person who..., the same island that...,

the same time when..., the same place where..., etc.

h) Attributive clauses joined by the relative adverbs when, where, whence, whereon (rather obsolete) refer to antecedents designating spatial or temporal notions.

It is thehour when we sleep.

He turned to that hugeglobe whereon were marked all discoveries of the moment concerning the origin of modern Man...

i) The relative adverb why refers to antecedents denoting cause or reason.

They see noreason why they should not do so.

Types of attributive clauses

I. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive (defining) and non-restrictive or descriptive (non-defining).

1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:

a) relative pronouns who, whose, which, that, as;

b) relative adverbs where, when;

c) asyndetically

You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in simple things.

…but there is no private life which has not been determined by a wider, public life.

All that could be done had been done.

He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers sing in Algeria.

And he is now come to that stage of life when a man like him should enter into public affairs.

They spoke no more all the way back to the lodging where Fanny and her uncle lived.

There was simply nothing else he could do.

I think my father is the best man I have ever known.

2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.

Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of:

a) relative pronouns who, which;

b) relative adverbs where, when.

Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool.

She uttered a wild scream, which in its heart-rending intensity seemed to echo for miles.

He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one.

The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an attributive relative non-restrictive clause.

He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve.

3. A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continuative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause.

Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma. A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which, rendered in Russian by the pronoun что.

Mr. Manston was not indoors, which was a relief to her.

For this purpose they probably lowered the bridge, which can be done quite noiselessly.

But to-day... he had slept only in snatches, which was worse than not sleeping at all.