Overview of Binding Energy

The loss in mass, or mass defect, is due to the conversion of mass lo binding energy when the nucleus is formed. Binding energy is defined as the amount of energy that must be supplied to a nucleus to completely separate its nuclear particles (nucleons). It can also be understood as the amount of energy that would be released if the nucleus was formed from the separate particles. Binding energy is the energy equivalent of the mass defect. Since the mass defect was converted lo binding energy (BE) when the nucleus was formed, it is possible to calculate the binding energy using a conversion factor derived by the mass-energy relationship from Einstein's Theory of Relativity.

Einstein's famous equation relating mass and energy is E = mc² where с is the velocity of light (C = 2.998 x 10*8 m/sec). The energy equivalent of 1 amu can be determined by inserting this quantity of mass into Einstein's equation and applying conversion factors.

Conversion Factors:

Since 1 amu is equivalent to 931.5 MeV of energy, the binding energy can be calculated using Equation (1-2).

Example:

Calculate the mass defect and binding energy for uranium-235. One uranium-235 atom has a mass of 235.043924 amu.

Solution:

Step 1: Calculate the mass defect using Equation (1-1).

Step 2: Use the mass defect and Equation (1-2) to calculate the binding energy.

Energy Levels of Atoms: The electrons that circle the nucleus move in fairly well-defined orbits. Some of these electrons are more tightly bound in the atom than others. For example, only 7.38 eV is required to remove the outermost electron from a lead atom, while 88.000 eV is required to remove the innermost electron. The process of removing an electron from an atom is called ionization, and the energy required to remove the electron is called the ionization energy.

In a neutral atom (number of electrons = Z) it is possible for the electrons to be in a variety of different orbits, each with a different energy level. The state of lowest energy is the one in which the atom is normally found and is called the ground state. When the atom possesses more energy than its ground state energy, it is said to be in an excited state.

An atom cannot stay in the excited state for an indefinite period of time. An excited atom will eventually transition to either a lower-energy excited state, or directly to its ground state, by emitting a discrete bundle of electromagnetic energy called an x-ray. The energy of the x-ray will be equal to the difference between the energy levels of the atom and will typically range from several eV to 100.000 eV in magnitude.

Energy Levels of the Nucleus: The nucleons in the nucleus of an atom, like the electrons that circle the nucleus, exist in shells that correspond to energy states. The energy shells of the nucleus are less defined and less understood than those of the electrons. There is a state of lowest energy (the ground state) and discrete possible excited states for a nucleus. Where the discrete energy states for the electrons of an atom are measured in eV or keV, the energy levels of the nucleus are considerably greater and typically measured in MeV.

A nucleus that is in the excited state will not remain at that energy level for an indefinite period. Like the electrons in an excited atom, the nucleons in an excited nucleus will transition towards their lowest energy configuration and in doing so emit a discrete bundle of electromagnetic radiation called a gamma ray (γ-ray). The only differences between x-rays and γ-rays are their energy levels and whether they are emitted from the electron shell or from the nucleus.

The ground slate and the excited slates of a nucleus can be depicted in a nuclear energy-level diagram. The nuclear energy-level diagram consists of a slack of horizontal bars, one bar for each of the excited states of the nucleus. The vertical distance between the bar representing an excited state and the bar representing the ground state is proportional to the energy level of the excited state with respect to the ground slate. This difference in energy between the ground state and the excited state is called the excitation energy of the excited state. The ground state of a nuclide has zero excitation energy. The bars for the excited states are labeled with their respective energy levels. Figure 7 is the energy level diagram for nickel-60.

1.2. Find antonyms to the following words in the text above: